WWI and the End of Empire

WWI and the End of Empire

Young Turks 1906: Discontented army corps officers formed secret society Macedonia 1907 : Young Turks founded Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) - stood for strong central government, exclusion foreign influence

Young Turks Principal aim: restoration Constitution 1876 revoked by Abdulhamid II Debate: did CUP represent Young Ottoman platform reborn? Opposition: other exiles League of Private Initiative and Decentralization --more European assistance, decentralized government Both influential

Young Turks 1907: Key development -- army corps joined with CUP - real power joined with ideological fervor to achieve common goal Young Turk revolution ultimately generated from practical, not intellectual stimulus

Young Turks Proclamation of 1908: announced the revolution [see The Young Turks: Proclamation for the Ottoman Empire, 1908 in Additional Readings ] - How different from earlier generation radicals? - compare with 1904 analysis Three Policies

Young Turks - Initial problem: expediency of coalition - army corps desire for power not supportive of ideological goals revolution - consolidation further delayed by Balkan Wars (1912-13) - government not firmly under Young Turk control until 1913

Balkan Wars of Independence 1912 Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro declared war on Ottomans: - intention to seize remaining Ottoman lands in European territory - took advantage of unstable Young Turk regime

Balkan Wars of Independence Earlier practice consolidating nationalism through murder and expulsion (Greece, Serbia) repeated: - Muslim villages, town quarters destroyed - Refugees fled - joined by persecuted Jews - European observers estimated about half never reached sanctuary

Balkan Wars of Independence - Ottoman estimates 413,000 survivors settled in Empire after wars - refugee camps struck by disease - cholera in camp outside Istanbul - other camps, typhus, typhoid widespread. As the Ottoman Empire came to the period of the First World War, it had already suffered greater blows than any other combatants were to suffer in the Great War. [McCarthy]

Cholera struck the Turkish Army (from International Committee of the Red Cross History) Balkan Wars of Independence

Young Turks Other problems: - Arab nationalists generated differing views - nationalist organizations flourished in exile -al-fatat(youth) Paris, 1911 - al-ahd (the covenant), led by a Egyptian - Both called for Arab-Turkish monarchy like Austrian-Hungarian empire.

Young Turks 1913 Arab congress met in Paris: - demanded changes by Ottoman parliament - CUP did not implement requests.

Young Turks Discontent among Tribes of Arabian Peninsula: - Mecca resented centralization - Sherif of Mecca, Husayn, got support regional Hijaz tribes - his son sought support Lord Kitchener (Cairo) against Ottoman regime (until 1914) - British did not intervene yet! - most Arabs loyal to Ottoman empire in 1914

Young Turks New Government in 1913: Domestic front: - positive, progressive reforms - provincial administration (more centralized) - improved education (all groups, including women) - fully secularized legal-system - industrialization

Young Turks Foreign policy: - disastrous - took Ottomans into WWI on side of Germans - Permitted (instigated?) genocide Armenians 1915 [see Armenian Genocide and Obama in Turkey in Additional Readings]

World War I All empire implicated: - Egypt-Sudan, Arabian peninsula, Fertile Crescent, Iran - Ottomans on side Central Powers threatened British communications to India - from bases in Egypt, Persian Gulf, British secured lifeline. - Germans asked for Turks to curtail shipping Suez Canal, proclaim jihad against the Entente

World War I Intent: - insure allegiance Arabic-speaking Muslims, - arouse animosity against British among the Muslims in India. - Jihad proclaimed by Sultan-caliph November 23, 1914 -few tribal shaykhs south Arabia, several Indian pan-islamists, Yemen, Fertile Crescent only respondents

World War I British concern: Suez canal - declared Egypt formal protectorate Dec. 1914 - imposed martial law - region like large army base - Egyptians believed outcome of war would guarantee independence - Harsh treatment during war led to rise of nationalist movement Wafd, led by Sa'd Zaghlul [See Egyptian nationalism in Additional Readings]

[Encyclopedia of the Orient: http://i-cias.com/e.o/zaghlul_s]

World War I Pledges to Arabs: - Britain encouraged Sherif of Mecca to organize Arab revolt, undermine Ottoman attempts unity 1915-16 Husayn-McMahon correspondence: - outlined agreement, Husayn would rally Arabs in exchange for Arab independence, British alliance (political, economic) - boundaries (of French Syria) to be decided post-war

World War I 1916 Arab revolt launched (as promised): - later given impetus by Col. T E Lawrence Lawrence of Arabia - aided by Amir Abd al-aziz [Ibn Sa'ud], leader of nationalist, traditionalist Wahhabi movement - engaged regional pro-ottoman prince in battle - given separate, secret agreement by British

[ Sherif Husayn of Hijaz

[ T.E Lawrence Lawrence of Arabia

Ibn Saud with Sir Percy Cox and Gertrude Bell

Other agreements: World War I - Constantinople Agreement, 1915: Russia to receive Constantinople, adjacent territory - confirmed division of Iran between them - London Agreement, 1915 (with Italy): - Italy to received southwestern Anatolia post war

World War I Other agreements: - Greece (not formal agreement but understanding): - Greece wanted parts of western Anatolia with large Greek population

World War I Other Agreements: - Sykes-Picot (Britain, France and Russia): - added eastern part to the area reserved for Russian annexation - much south-central Anatolia for French administration. Despite Britain's commitment to Sharif Husayn for united Arab state, agreement provided for partition of Fertile Crescent.

The Secret Partition of Turkey

Other Agreements: World War I - Balfour Declaration 1917: most important controversial agreement - let directly to Palestinian Crisis - Palestine part of Syria: French special interest - Sykes Picot had territory under international administration - Husayn aware of agreement, not terms: assured French interests limited to coast

World War I Declaration original part of informal correspondence November 1917: "His Majesty's Government views with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object. It being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non- Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.

World War I Anglo-French Declaration, November 1918: - Arabs allowed own governments. President Wilson's Fourteen Points: Article XII. The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development,

World War I Arabs saw themselves as betrayed. - contradictions between them, Husayn-McMahon correspondence, Sykes-Picot Agreement and Balfour declaration initiated series Arab nationalist grievances against British in particular, West in general Palestine became Mandated Territory, housing both Jewish settlers and Palestinians [see The Mandate for Palestinian in Additional Readings ]

World War I All Arabs opposed Allied plan for replacing Ottoman Empire with Western-controlled mandates: - memorandum adopted July 2, 1919 by the General Syrian Congress -- present-day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel [see Arabs Opposition to Mandates in Readings]