Main Themes: The Nineteenth Century: Islam -Islam critical in shaping pre-colonial Africa -Reinforced by/reinforcing links with broader Muslim world -Role revivalist movements in generating religious, social, economic change
Pre-colonial Islamic Africa -filters into Africa through world commercial systems: Trans-Saharan, Indian Ocean -in turn provides continued linkage major Islamic empires: Ottoman, Persian, Indian -role of the Hajj
Pre-colonial Islamic Africa -15 th -17 th centuries portrayed as peak of Islamic world influence - long decline through 18 th -19 th centuries providing Europe with opportunity to rise -perception shaped historiography -question degree to which true, especially in Africa
Nineteenth Century -key changes 18 th -19 th century Islamic world: reformism, revivalism -militaristic expression: jihad, mahdism -transformation relations with Ottoman empire: Africa seeking autonomy -transformation relations with Europe: cooperation or conflict? -Islam politicized
Reformism, Revivalism Ottoman Empire key: -attempts modernization, westernization provoking response -movements seeking purer, fundamental Islam -resistance to increasing European influence tied to resisting central Ottoman power: secularism vs religiosity -new reformist movements politicized
Africa: Reformism, Revivalism -takes various forms: -rise new tariqa or brotherhoods -mahdism -jihad -used to unify, build new states -effective resistance European colonial rule -reshapes societies, economies
Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa tariqa : Tidjaniya, Qadiriya, Sanussiya -named after Islamic clerics, often sufi based -each with own rules of affiliation -spreading into and through Sahara -follows commercial networks -supporting economic and political activities -acting as ideology even in stateless Sahara
Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa Examples: -Kunta (Qadiriya 18 th -19 th c. Sahara) -al-qadir (Qadiriya 19 th c. Algeria) -al-hajj Umar (Tidjaniya 19 th c. Mali) -Uthman dan Fodio (Qadiriya 19 th c. Nigeria) -al-sanusi (Sanusiyya 19 th c. Libya) -al-mahdi (Shi ism 19 th c. Sudan)
Jihad States in the Nineteenth Century
Abd Al-Qadir (Algeria) Al-Mahdi (Sudan)
Futanke (Fulani) soldier, Umarian Jihad (Mali) Samory Ture (Guinea-Ivory Coast)
Mahdi saviour of slaves (imagined scene)
Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa Questions: -how significant was religious base of movements? -to what extent were they local in origin? -to what extent were they legitimate? -were they beneficial to African growth? -how do they relate to other 19 th century themes in African History?
Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa Tariqa in the Sahara: -closely linked to economic success - talibes (students) labour force -clans owed allegiance to spiritual leader (military, economic) -19 th c. conflict and competition increase -religious power vs political power -divisions over interaction with European infidel
Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa Mahdism: -shia in belief: emphasis on role of Imam in society return of last Imam -militaristic battle jihad -initial target: Egypt secular, imperialistic -intervention of British turned jihad into resistance to European imperialism -mixed motives of army
Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa Jihad: -several examples across West African Sahel -tied to Saharan revivalism, same tariqa -sometimes actual alliances (eg al-hajj Umar) -real religious concerns (eg taxation, practices of slavery) but also generated by social, economic issues
Jihad States c.1830
Jihad States in the Nineteenth Century
Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa -issue of bad Muslim (eg Uthman dan Fodio): legitimacy? -warfare with what consequences? -feeding into growth slave trading -establishment of jihad states : increase in slave use -economic impact -religious warfare but political state: politicization of Islam
Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa State building: -jihads of al-hajj Umar, Uthman dan Fodio most effective -next generation carried on new state, based on Islamic law and practise -Sokoto largest, most sophisticated economy and administration -Umarian regime more localised, attracting migrants to settle -both resisted Europeans as states
Reformism, Revivalism: North & West Africa Egypt: - different only to extent embodied tensions with both European and Ottoman powers -rise of Muhamed Ali Pasha -resistance to revivalism (Wahabism) -resistance to Ottoman control -role of British -1880-2: crisis of Islam and Imperialism -key flashpoint in Scramble for Africa
Muhamed Ali Pasha (Egypt) Egyptian Imperialism (Mohamed Ali Pasha s empire)
Swahili Coast - Islamic influences came from several directions, over long period time: Egypt, Somalia, Arabia, Persia - Most important process: trade and intermarriage with locals by merchants -Indian Ocean: monsoon winds controlled when ships could move across and around Ocean merchants forced to spend up to six months on East African coast -married, established families
Swahili Coast - Local chronicles speak of founding of citystates by Persians (Shiraz) tale of purchasing island of Kilwa with the cloth it took to surround the land, establishes link between commerce and Islam -Archaeology (excavation Mosques on the Isle Shanga) shows growing Muslim community from 11 th c.
Swahili Coast
Swahili Coast -Emergence of Swahili (from Arabic sahil or coast) language of Bantu origin, grammar -large Arabic vocabulary, also Persian words -Mixed Arab-Persian influence seen in architecture, literature (poetry utendi) -Network provided basis for spread of Islam, especially in 19 th C.
Swahili Coast -1830s Sultan Sayyid Said (Oman) established capital at Zanzibar -Traders of mixed descent: Swahili and African (eg Tippu Tip ) -Took language, culture, religion to settlements far in interior -looked not only to Zanzibar but to traditions of Oman - brought different school of Islamic practice: Ibadi - affected social structure, marriage, identity
Swahili Coast Traditional modest Muslim dress Celebration of the Prophet s Birthday
Islam in Africa (2003)