3 Christian KeUer I 1HE EASfERN SETILEMENT RECONSIDERED Some analyses of No,,", Medieval Greenland Oslo 1989
) 5 ABSfRACf Christian Keller: The Eastern Settlement Reconsidered Some analyses of Norse Medieval GreeoJand Key words: Norse, Greenland, Viking Period, Middle Ages, Spatial Aoa1ysis, Church History, History of Research. Southern Greenland was settled by Norse immigrants around A.D. 1000. They developed a flourishing settlement of 4 6000 inhabitants until it mysteriously disappeared, probably some time in the late 14005. From the time of Hans Egede's arrival in Greenland in 1721, the fate of the colonists has been the subject of massive research. The author gives a summary of the history of the settlement and a summary of its research from the Late Middle Ages to 1987, including an extensive bibliography. The archaeological material from the Eastern Settlement includes 444 registered sites or "ruin-groups", dating from around A.D. 1000 to the late 1400s. The material has been made available for studies through surveys and excavations carried out by the Danish National Museum. In this book, spatial analyses are used to study the settlement-distribution, its relationship to vegetational resources, and ecological adaptation. Demographic development and chronological problems are discussed, and attempts are made to locate the initial settlement areas. The dating and location of the churches and their churchyards are also discussed, and a possi~le early Celtic Christian influence on the Norse culture is suggested. Written sources, especially the "Description of Greenland" by Ivar Baardson, are discussed. The author rejects previous interpretations of this source as evidence of massive land control on behalf of the Roman Catholic Church. A proprietary church system in Greenland is suggested on the basis of Norwegian and Icelandic church history. The author considers Norse Greenland a conservative society, which resented intervention from abroad, including attempted church reforms. Finally, a historical periodization and a chronological summary is presented. The book aims create a discussion on certain topics of general nature concerning the Eastern Settlement, its settlement pattern, social organization and its relationship to Europe. The author presents a picture of Greenland as the last refuge for the Norse SOCial system of the Viking Period. He regards Norse Greenland as opposed to political influence from the society that (, developed in Scandinavia during the High Middle Ages.
6 CONTENTS Abstract List of plates and illustrations Acknowledgments Abbreviations On literary references Special terminology Orthographic Standards introduction 5 13 15 17 18 19 19 21 CHAYfER I: TIffi EASfERN SETfLEMENT, A GENERAL APPROACH 23 1.1 WHAT TIllS BOOK IS ABOUT 23 1.1.1 Background 23 1.1.2 The purpose of the book 24 12 PHYSICAL CONDmONS n 1.2.1 Location, ~eography and fauna 27 1.2.2 Climatic history and vegetation 28 13 HISTORY 30 1.3.1 A short summary of the history of Greenland 30 1.3.2 Theories on the extinction 31 1.3.3 The Nordic countries up to 1500 33 1.4 HISTORICAL MODELS 36 1.4.1 The problem 36 1.4.2 The mtroduction of Christianity 37 1.4.3 The autonomous church 39 1.4.4 Two historical models and a basic theory 41 15 TIffiORIES AND PARADIGMS 42 1.5.1 The problem 42 1.5.2 Selection of data 43 1.5.3 The descriptive approach 43 1.5.4 The ecolo~ical approach 44 1.5.5 The matenalistic approach 47 1.6 CONCLUSIONS 49 CHAPTER 2: HISTORY OF RESEARCH 51 2.1 TIffi PURPOSE OF TIllS CHAPTER 51 22 TIffi PERIOD 1420-1721: CARTOGRAPHY AND DISCOVERIES 52 2.2.1 Geographical confusion - Claudius Clavus and the Karelians 52 2.2.2 Discoveries 60 2.2.3 Saving written records 61
7 Section 2.2.4 The land-bridge between Greenland and Norway, and more false names 2.2.5 The Eastern Settlement on the East Coast 2.2.6 The idea that led Hans Egede to Greenland 2.2.7 Compilations 2.2.8 Contemporary Scandinavian Archaeology 62 63 64 65 66 2.3 TIIE PERIOD 1721-1823, TIIE MODERN COLONIZATION 2.3.1 Hans Egede 2.3.2 Archaeological surveys 2.3.3 The Kingittorssuak stone 2.3.4 Contemporary Scandinavia 2.4 TIIE PERIOD 1831-1920, SYSTEMATIC RESEARCH 2.4.1 The GHM 2.4.2 Scandinavian archaeology 2.4.3 Historical research in Scandinavia 2.4.4 Gustav Holm 2.4.5 Dwellings 2.4.6 Daniel Bruun 2.4.7 Scandinavian research, and the "Greenland Case" 25 NORWEGIAN AUTHORS ON NORSE GREENLAND AFTER 1900 2.5.1 FridtjofNansen, and NoIVtegian expeditions 2.5.2 Bull, Br0gger and others 2.5.3 J6n Duason 2.5.4 The Ingstads 2.5.5 The later years 2.6 TIIE PERIOD 192(}.J940, THE "CLASSICAL" EXCA V A TIONS 2.6.1 Poul N0rlund 2.6.2 The Herjolfsnes excavation 2.6.3 The Gardar excavation 2.6.4 The Brattahlid excavation 2.6.5 Comments on N0rlund 2.6.6 Aage Roussell 2.6.7 Excavations in Iceland 2.6.8 "Farms and churches... " 2.6.9 Butterfly larvae 2.7 TIIE PERIOD FROM 1945 UNTIL TODAY 2.7.1 Christen Leif Vebrek 2.7.2 Knud J. Krogh 2.7.3 A ScandinavIan Perspective 2.7.4 J0rgen Meldgaard 2.7.5 The Inuit-Norse Project 1976-77 2.7.6 Finn Gad 2.7.7 Henrik M. Jansen 2.7.8 Ove Bak 2.7.9 Svend Erik Albrethsen 2.7.10 CI.us Andreasen 2.7.11 Joel Berglund 2.7.12 Thomas H. McGovern 67 67 68 69 69 70 70 73 73 74 74 75 77 78 78 80 83 84 85 85 85 86 89 90 91 91 92 93 94 94 94 96 98 98 99 99 100 100 100 101 101 102
Section 8 2.8 EFFEcrs OF "THE GREENLAND CASE" ON mstorical RESEARCH 103 2.9 IMPORTANT WORKS IN OTIlER DISClPLlNES 105 2.9.1 Christian Vibe 105 2.9.2 Anker Weidick 105 2.9.3 Bent Fredskild 106 2.9.4 W. Dansgaard and his colleagues 106 2.9.5 H. H. Lamb 107 2.9.6 The Project on Vegetational Mapping in Southern Greenland 107 2.10 CONCLUDlNG COMMENTS 107 - CHAPTER 3: TIlE SETILEMENT PATTERN 3.1 TIlE PROBLEM 3.1.1 A representative selection of sites 3.1.2 Questions about the settlement pattern 3.2 TIlE MATERIAL 3.2.1 What is a "ruin-group"? 3.2.2 The number of ruin-groups 3.2.3 The distribution of ruin-~roups 3.2.4 The ruin-group distribulion map 3.3 SETILEMENT DENSITY 3.3.1 Function and chronolo~ 3.3.2 Questions to the matenal 3.3.3 Estimates of ruin-group density 3.4 SETILEMENT DENSITY COMPARED TO OTIlER AREAS 3.4.1 Background 3.4.2 Vestv~g0y 3.4.3 Salten Fjerding 3.4.4 The comparison of farms 3.4.5 The comparison of holdings 3.4.6 Agglomerations 3.4.7 The results of the comparison 111 111 111 112 113 113 114 116 118 120 120 120 121 124 124 124 126 127 129 132 134 CHAPTER 4: ADAPTATION AND RESOURCES 4.1 COAST AND INlAND ADAPTATION 4.1.1 Inland economy 4.1.2 Inland ruin-groups 42 TRANSHUMANCE 4.2.1 'Saeters' 4.2.2 What is a 'saeter'? 4.2.3 Three main types of'saeters' 135 135 135 136 138 138 138 139
Section 43 VEGETATlONAL RESOURCES 4.3.1 Distribution of vegetation and ruin-groups 4.3.2 Vegetation and ruin-group corre lation 4.3.3 The Gardar area 4.3.4 The Brattahlid area 4.3.5 The Vatnahverfi area 4.3.6 The Tuttutooq island 4.3.7 Itilliarsuup Nunaa 4.3.8 Top-soil destruction 4.3.9 Concluding remarks on vegetation and settleme nt 9 142 142 143 148 150 151 151 152 152 154 CHAPTER 5: SETTLEMENT AND CHRONOLOGY 5.1 THE PROBLEM 52 DEMOGRAPHY 5.2.1 The landnam population size 5.2.2 The maximum population 5.2.3 Chronological framework 5.2.4 Models for demographic development 5.2.5 A model for development of farms 5.2.6 Alternative progress of population growth 53 STRATEGIES FOR EXPANSION 5.3.1 Social differentiation 5.3.2 Strategies for expansion 5.4 DATING OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIAL 5.4.1 The problem 5.4.2 The evolution of the dwell ing 5.4.3 Greenland dwelling-types 5.4.4 Explanatory theories 5.4.5 The churches 5.4.6 Other objects 5.4.7 Conclusions 157 157 158 158 1;9 160 10 -, _ 164 165 168 168 171 172 172 174 175 176 177 177 180 CHAPTER 6: THE CHURCHES AS SE1TLEMENT INDICATORS 6.1 THE CHURCHES AND THEm. LOCA TlON 6.1.1 The problem 6.1.2 The churches of the Eastern Settlement 6.1.3 The location of the churches 62 CHURCH TYPES AND CHRONOLOGY 6.2.1 The Qorlortoq-type churches 6.2.2 The circular churchyards 6.2.3 The churches with a narrow chancel 6.2.4 The rectangular churches 6.2.5 The cruciform churches 6.2.6 The east west axis of the chu rch buildings 183 183 183 183 186 187 187 188 200 204 205 205
10 Section 6.2.7 Concluding remarks on the dating 6.3 EARLY CHURCH IDSTORY 6.3.1 Early Christian Norway 6.3.2 Early Christian Iceland - and Greenland 6.3.3 Organization of the church building in Norway 207 208 208 210 212 6.4 LOCATION OF TIlE GREENLAND CHURCHES TO TIlE EARLY FAJR11S 214 6.4.1 The problem 214 6.4.2 Church and farm in Greenland 214 6.4.3 Conclusions on early church locations 215 6.5 LOCATING TIlE INl11AL SETILEMENT AREAS 6.5.1 Landnamab6k 6.5.2 Arcbaeological material 6.5.3 Conclusion on early settlement areas 6.5.4 The ecological adaptation 216 216 216 217 217 CHAPTER 7: CLERICAL ADMINISTRATION 7.1 A PARISH SYSTEM IN GREENLAND? 7.1.1 The problem 7.1.2 Church and parish 7.1.3 The church lists 7.2 DOES BAARDSON DESCRIBE A PARISH SYSTEM? 7.2.1 The Description of Greenland. 7.2.2 To "own" a parish 73 RECONSTRUCTION OF PARISHES 7.3.1 The problem 7.3.2 Church location and settlement distribution 7.3.3 The Region Model 7.3.4 Parish Model I 7.3.5 A test of Model I 7.4 PARISH MODELS AND DEMOGRAPIDC INCREASE 7.4.1 The problem 7.4.2 Uneven population growth? 7.4.3 Parish Model 11 7.4.4 A test of Model 11 7.4.5 Conclusions 219 219 219 220 221 224 224 227 235 235 235 237 238 240 243 243 245 247 250 251 CHAPTER 8: GREENLAND AND TIlE EUROPEAN CHURCH 8.1 GREENLAND AND CANON LAW 8.1.1 The problem 8.1.2 An example of early rules and regulations 255 255 255 256
11 Section 82 CHURCH REFORM IN GREENLAND? 8.2.1 The problem 8.2.2 Who was Ivar Baardson? 8.2.3 The intent behind the "Description of Greenland" 8.2.4 The proprietary church system in Iceland 8.2.5 Indications of church reform in Greenland 8.2.6 The 'Sicrrelings', conflictin~ theories 8.2.7 Later sources on apostasy In Greenland 8.2.8 Conclusion 257 257 258 259 262 265 271 272 273 8.3 PA YMENI'S FROM GREENLAND TO THE EUROPEAN CHURCH 274 8.3.1 The problem 274 8.3.2 The payment in 1327 276 8.3.3 The texts 277 8.3.4 Reconstructing the weight 278 8.3.5 Reconstructing the value 279 8.3.6 Reconstructing the number of tusks 279 8.3.7 Reconstructing the tithe from Norway 280 8.3.8 The six years's tithe in 1276-1349 281 8.3.9 Reconstructing the Peter's Pence 283 8.3.10 A problem of currency 286 8.4 CONCLUSIONS 288 CHAPTER 9: DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 9.1 RESEARCH UNDER WAY 9.1.1 Background 9.1.2 Research with a bitter taste 92 VEGETATION AND ECOWGY 9.2.1 Ecological adaptation - a summary 9.2.2 Ecological adaptation - a discussion 9.2.3 "Northern Islands, Human Error... "- 9.2.4 Impacts of land-use 9.2.5 Irreversible degradation of top-soil? 9.2.6 Who's problem? 9.3 ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 9.3.1 The problem 9.3.2 Viking Period economy 9.3.3 Medieval economy 9.3.4 Economic factors in Greenland 9.3.5 Conclusion 9.4 SOCIALSfRUCTURE 9.4.1 Social differentiation - a summary 9.4.2 Social structures - discussion 9.4.3 Social stratification in Greenland 9.4.4 A process of social change 9.4.5 Secular administration 9.4.6 Why should the Greenlanders resent church reforms? 291 291 291 292 294 294 295 295 297 297 298 299 299 299 302 303 305 306 306 307 308 309. 312 313
Section 95 A CHRONOLOGICAL OUlLOOK 9.5.1 Approaching a conclusion 9.5.2 The Landnam Phase (till ca. 1050) 9.5.3 The Early Settlement Period (ca. 1050-1125) 9.5.4 The Middle Settlement Period (1125 - ca. 1350) 9.5.5 The Late Settlement Period (ca. 1350 - ca. 1475) 12 -- 315 315 316 318 318 320 APPENDIX I Cross reference table for Inuit orthography 323 APPENDIX II BmUOGRAPHY Cross reference table from ruin-group numbers to preservation numbers 325 331
13 UST OF PIA TES AND ILLUSTRA nons Plate DO. Plate 1 Map of Greenland 26 Plate 2 Temperature curve (from Keller 86) 29 Plate 3 Welinder's model of a human ecological system 46 Plate 4 Friedman's Marxist social model 47 Plate 5 Ruin-group distribution map 117 Plate 6 Ruin-group density map 119 Plate 7 Bar ~raph showing the distribution of ruin-groups on 1 x 10 km sguares 122 Plate 8 ~ar graph showing the distribution of ruin-groups In percent 123 Plate 9 Medieval named farms in Vestv ry 125 Plate 10 Medieval named farms in Salten jerding 126 Plate 11 Comparative diagram of settlement areas 127 Plate 12 Ruin-group 0-34 in Qorlortup Itinnera 131 Plate 13 Lorenz-diagram 132 Plate 14 Inland ruin-groups 137 Plate 15 'Saeters' 141 Plate 16 Table of grazing-districts 145 Plate 17 Correlation diagram for fodder potential and ruin-group density 147 Plate 18 Bar graph showing ruin-group / vegetation index 147 Plate 19 Map of ruin-group / vegetation correlation 149 Plate 20 Demographic curves 163 Plate 21 Storage area 169 Plate 22 Map of dated finds 173 Plate 23 Map of Eastern Settlement churches 185 Plate 24 Brattahlid I, ']Odhild'S Church" at Qassiarsuk 189 Plate 25 The churches rattahlid 11 and Ill, Qassiarsuk 190 Plate 26 Enclosed cemetery at St. Ninian's Point, Scotland 192 Plate 27 Churches and churchyards of the Eastern Settlement 193 Plate 28 Norwegian churches with fost-hole pillars 200 Plate 29 Chronological sequence 0 Greenland churches 201 Plate 30 Chronological sequence of churches at Sandi, in the Faroes 201 Plate 31 Church site from Opnan, Northern Norway 203 Plate 32 The Cathedral, Gardar I & 11, Igaliku 206 Plate 33 Regions based on ruin-group concentrations 236 Plate 34 Parish model I, with floor size indicated as black squares 239 Plate 35 Church area per "farm" shown as bar graphs 241 Plate 36 Parish model 11 248
15 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my thanks to all the people who, in one way or another have helped me during the work with this book. Two people deserve special mention: Svend Erik Albrethsen, Rigsantikvaren, Copenhagen, my friend and companion on several expeditions, was the one to introduce me to Norse Greenland archaeology. and has also helped by reading the manuscript. Without him, my interest for Greenland would have waned many years ago. Jette Arneborg, of the Ethnographical Collection of the. Danish National Museum, has been a most ardent opponent and discusslon partner. She has openly shared her views and OpinIOnS, and many of the ideas discussed in this book are, directly or indirectly, due to her suggestions; especially where the written sources are concerned. She has also given valuable advice and corrections to the manuscript. Also, I would have read the like to give special thanks manuscript and suggested to two historians, who corrections, especially within the subjects of Icelandic and Norwegian church history: Magnus Stefansson, Historical Institute, University of Bergen, and Erik Gunnes, Historical Institute, University of Oslo. I will also use this opportunity to commemorate two people who died before this book was finished. Sverre Marstrander, my professor and director, who selected me to be one of the Norwegian Greenland participants in the Nordic in 1976 and -77, and Jan Archaeological Expeditions to Nordb0 of the Coin Cabinet, Oslo, who gave me valuable advice concerning medieval coinage. A number of people have helped by supplying information or literature, by topics, or by readmg parts of the manuscript, by discussing special helping me solve technical problems. They are listed in alphabetic order: l0rgen Balslev l 0rgensen, K.A.S. S1. Elisabeth, Copenhagen; Reidar Bertelsen, ISV, University of Troms0; Erik W. Born, Gr0nlands Fiskeri~ og Miljounders0gelser; lan Brendalsmo, Riksantikvarens utgravningskontor, Tonsberg; H ~kon Christie, Riksantikvaren, Oslo; Hans Christian GUIl0v, the Ethnographical Collection of the Danish National Museum; Vera Henriksen, Lam; Birgitta HArdh, Historical Museum, Kjellberg, Lund; lorgen lensenius, Riksantikvaren. Riksarkivet. Oslo; l ames Knirk, the Rune Oslo; Halvor Archive, Oslo; Bernt Lange, Riksantikvaren, Oslo; Aidan MacDonald, the University College of Cork; Tom McGovern, Hunter College, New York; Bente Magnus, Oslo; Petter Maus, Nesodden; J0rgen Meldgaard, the Ethnographical Collection, Danish National Museum; Ingun Montgomery, Institute for Church History, Oslo; Bj0rn Myhre, the University Collection of National Antiquities, Oslo; Sverre Moller, Trysil; lenny~rita Ncess, the Archaeological Museum of Stavanger; Bj0rnar Olsen, ISV, University of Troms0; Sverre Olstad, As; Kjersti Schanche, ISV, University of Troms0; Kolbj0rn Skaare, the Coin Cabinet, Oslo; Dagfinn Skre, the University Collection of National Antiquities, Oslo; Mona Skauge, the University National Antiquities, Oslo; Inger~Helene Vibe Miiller, Collection of the University Collection of National Antiquities, Oslo; Karl~Dag Vorren, University
16 of Troms0; Mats Widgren, Kulturgeografiska Institutionen, University of Stockholm; Stig Welinder, the University Collection of National Antiquities, Oslo. I also would like to tharik Frode Fyllingsnes for allowing me to use material and references from his unpublished thesis in.. History (now in press), and Diana Stensdal and Eli Bremer of the University Library, Oslo, for helping me with literature. Thanks also to Eirik Irgens Johnsen and Leif Pedersen of the Photographic Studio at the University Collection of National Antiquities, Oslo, for helping me with reproductions and figures. I would like to thank the University Collection of National Antiquities, Oslo, for grants which enabled me to visit the National Museum in Copenhagen and the University of Bergen. I would also hke to thank Kathy Elliott for reading throu~ my manuscript and weeding out the worst linguistic "Kellerisms" m my original English text. She has also given valuable advice by pointing out incoherent pans of the text. I will also use this opportunity. to express my regrets that the Norwegian Research Council (NAVF), in spite of numerous applications, has shown no interest whatsoever in sufporting Norwegian archaeological research In Greenland. Hopefu.1y, this attitude will not be permanent. Thanks also to my parents Ingrid and Johan Keller for helping me financially during the final stages of writing. Especially, I will commemorate my father Johan Keller, who read the manuscript, but who did not live to see the final product in print. Finally, I wish to express my most sincere thanks and apologies to my wife Liven and our daughter Janne, who have not seen much of their husband and father during the nearly four years of writing. Liven has helped me out in a number of ways, from counting small dots on the map to opposing against my chains of argument. She has also been my best fnend and support in times of frustrations and despair. Without her, this book would not have been possible. The book is dedicated to Janne (although it will take some time until she can read tbe English), as an apology for the part of her cbildbood that her father has spent writing. Still, it is my hope tbat, in time, she willleam to love Greenland as much as I do. Nesodden in October 1989 Christian Keller
17 cm D.N.M. Dip!. Norv. Dip!. Is!. G HM His!. Norv. inf. Is!. Ann. KLNM KGA km m NAB NGL pers. comm. pres. Reg. Norv. var. vel. ABBREVIATIONS centimeter(s) Nationalmuseet: the Danish National Museum Diplomawrium Norve~jcum Diplomatarium Islandlcum Gr0nlands Historiske Mindesrmerker Historia Norvegire infinitive Islandske Annaler Kulturhi!,lOrisk Leksikon for Nordisk Middelalder Kongelige Geheime Archiv (Copenhagen) kilometer(s) = 1000 meters rneter{s) = 100 centimeters Nordic Archaeological Expedition 1976-77 Norges Gamle Love personal communication present Re~esta Norvegica variant, version (of written documents) volume
18 ON UTERARY REFERENCES Literary references. are normally made after the Harvard System, i.e. (author year : page). In special cases such as series, the work may be presented as an abbreviation, the volume in Roman numerals, and the column (or page) in Arabic numerals, for instance (KLNM XllI:492) = (kulturhistorisk Leksikon for Nordisk Middelalder. Volume 13 : Column 492). In some very few cases, the literary references are inadequate. This is the regrettable consequence of the fact that much of the literature referred to is inobtainable through Norwegian libraries or, just as bad, exist in so few copies that they are available for short term loans only, or in more or less complete Xerox copies. I apologize for the inconvenience.
19 SPEOAL TERMINOLOGY Landnam (Old Norse / Icelandic): To "take land", i.e. the act of taking unoccupied land in possession. Also refers to the piece of land taken. Named farm (transl. from Norwegian "navnegard") : A historical reconstruction of the "original" farm in an area. Ruin-group (trans!. from Danish "ruin-gruppe"): A site consisting of ruins of Norse origin. 'Saeter' (from Norwegian "seter"): Transhumance station, shieling. "Ting" (Scandinavian term): A regional assembly of juridico-political standing, later English literature sometimes spelt 'Thing". or central council replaced by courts. "Eskimo" (from French esquimau): In this book used as a general term for the indigenous peoples of the region, in contrast to "Inuit", which is a specific term for the ethnic group of this name, or 'Thule", which refers to the archaeological culture of the Inuit of this millennium. or In ORlHOGRAPIDC STANDARDS Greenlandic (lnuit) place-names are spelt according to the new orthography. Exceptions are made in quotations, and when referring to place-names mentioned in old literature. A conversion table between old and new orthography is available in Appendix 1. Icelandic and Old Norse names are spelt in Anglicized form, for technical reasons. The names of historical persons, such as kings, are spelt the way they usually appear in modern Scandinavian literature: HAkon is spelt H~kon, etc. Exceptions are made for a few names presumably well known in Anglo-American literature, Eric the Red (Eirik Raude). These are spelt in their Anglicized form. such as Icelandic authors are, contrary to tradition, listed under their last names and not under their first names (only few Icelanders have surnames in the general meaning of the word). Nordic place-names in Greenland are generally avoided but for a few exceptions: Sometimes behind the Greenlandic a Norse name is name (Brattahlid, presented in brackets Gardar, Herjolfsnes, Hvalsey, Sandnes and identification easier for Vatnahverfi). This is done readers familiar with Norse to make Greenland literature, and does not indicate a full acceptance of the identification on my part. The Norse place-names are of course used when referring to written records.