THE golden AGE of Islam
Published by: Masha Books Copyright Masha Books All rights are reserved and unauthorized production in any manner is prohibited First Printed in India: 2018 Project Designer: Masha Books Project Author: Jason Luke Starr
Introduction The Golden Age of Islam is a period during which, most of the Islamic world was ruled by Caliphates. This period is also marked by a great advancement in science, economic development and various cultural works. Many historians believe that this period was started during the reign of Harun al- Rashind when he inaugurated the now famous House of Wisdom in Baghdad. Here, scholars from across the world with varying cultural backgrounds would gather and translate the world s knowledge into Arabic. These scholars would forever change the world we live in.
Contents 6 8 How it all began Notable Dynasties Rashidun Umayyads Abbasids 14 30 House of Wisdom Leadership under Al-Ma moun
55 Contributions during the Golden Age Education Theology Mathematics Sciences Engineering Arts and culture Healthcare Social Sciences Commerce and travel 105 127 Notable persons Decline
How it all began One of the primary reasons for the spread of Islam was rooted in the religion itself. There are a number of Quranic injunctions and Hadiths (Prophetic traditions) that places value on the importance of education. There are some Hadiths that stress upon the importance of gaining more knowledge. This concept would greatly influence the Muslims, prompting them to think progressively and make great strides in science and other fields of knowledge. Besides this came the aid of Governments. As the Islamic Empire began to expand, so too did the King s desires to learn and know more. Their desire to expand their Empire was only matched by their desire to learn. To that end, the Empire heavily patronized scholars. The money that was spent on the Translation Movement (where nearly all Greek books written by notable scholars were translated into Arabic) was high. It is estimated to be twice the annual research budget that is spent on the United Kingdom s Medical Research Council (more than 700 million pounds give or take). The best scholars and translators like Hunayn Ibn Ishaq had salaries equal to what professional athletes have today. One Hadith emphasizing the importance of education is Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave Most discussions between scholars would often occur outside. This was before the invention of libraries 6
During this time, the Muslims developed an interest in taking in the scientific knowledge from conquered civilizations. A number of classical works that might have otherwise been lost to time had been translated into Arabic and Persian. These works, would later be translated into Hebrew, Latin and Turkish. The Church of the East, also played a contributing role during this time. They aided in the development of the Islamic Civilization during the Ummayads and the Abbasids reign. The Church translated a number of works written by Greek Philosophers into Syriac and later into Arabic. The members of the Church also excelled in a number of fields like philosophy, science and theology. Science in particular had a number of well versed scholars like Hunayn Ibn Ishaq, Yusuf Al-Khuri, Qusta Ibn Luqa, Thabit Ibn Qurra etc. There was a long period of time where the physicians of the Abbasid Caliphs where Assyrian Christians. The Bukhtishu dynasty was among the most prominent Christian families that worked as physicians. Alongside science; books on medicine, philosophy and astronomy were promoted and translated by the Bukhtishu dynasty The Al-Andalus dynasty was started as a branch of the Umayyad Caliphate Another important factor to the Golden age was the development of new technology. There was a new and easier writing system in place and the spread of paper from China to the Middle East also helped greatly. Earlier on, all scholarly works were written on papyrus, which was a costly venture in the long run and could crack very easily. As there were volumes and volumes of books being translated and made available to the public, paper became all the more important to the growth of the Islamic Civilization. Paper came to the Islamic world via the Al-Andalus dynasty on the Iberian Peninsula (present day Spain). Paper was easier to make, therefore costs less in bulk and could be written on both sides. It absorbed ink, allowing for better record keeping as well. Thanks to this, it reached a point where one could make a living simply from writing and selling books. This led to the rise of libraries, further spreading wisdom and knowledge among the people. Islamic paper makers were able to devise an assembly line method of hand-copying manuscripts to turn out editions, far greater than what could be seen in Europe. It was through the efforts of these countries that the rest of the world was able to make paper from linen. A piece of papyrus with a Qurra (Naskh) script in black ink 7
Notable Dynasties It goes without saying that before any Empire can enter their Golden Period, it would undergo a period of strife first. This was the case seen in many other Empires and the Islamic Empire was no different. It was during these times that the foundation of the Islamic Empire was being laid. And it all started with the Rashidun Caliphate. Rashidun Caliphate: 639 CE was when Caliph Umar started the Muslim calendar. The year was started in reference to Hejira, the Prophet s journey from Mecca to Medina The Rashidun or (Rightly Guided) Caliphate was the first Caliphate established after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. It was first led by Abu Bakr (632-634), Umar (634-644), Uthman (644-656), and Ali (656-661). Coins circulated during the last Caliph s reign Though leadership continued without the Prophet to guide the people; his teachings remained firm in the mind of the people. There was a large and influential group of people called the ansar (companions of the Prophet) who kept close watch on the caliphs. The ansar ensured that the caliphs strictly adhered to the teachings of the Quran and the sunnah. The Rashiudin thus assumed nearly all the duties of the Prophet. As Imams, they led the masses in prayer at the mosque. As Khatibs, the caliphs delivered the Friday sermon and as Umara Al-Mu minin (commanders of the faithful) they led the army. 8
It is typically believed that the Rashidun Caliphate came to be during the wars of the riddah (apostasy between 632-633). This was when a number of tribal uprisings started cropping up all over the Arabian Peninsula and would continue to till the end of the first Muslim Civil War. Thanks to this, the expansion of the Islamic Empire was hampered beyond Arabia, into Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Iran, Egypt and Armenia. This however did lead to the development of a completely specialized class of Arab soldier. The Rashidun also adopted the Islamic calendar. This move would strengthen the Muslim community as a whole, while it also encouraged religious scholarship. The First Fitna (Islamic Civil War) began in 656 C.E Extent of the Rashidun Caliphate The one major controversy of the first Caliphate regarded who would succeed after Prophet Muhammad. On one side were those who supposed Abu Bakr, while others were in favor of Ali. This debate would lead to the eventual split of Islam into two sects, the Sunni (traditionalists) and the Shi ite (party of Ali). These two sects have survived to modern times. The religious adherences and traditionalist strictures that were followed by the Rashidun Caliphate began to relax. This was especially true after the ansar began to die off. Also, the conquered territories became too hard to rule along theocratic lines. All of this allowed the Umayyads to take over leadership, establishing the Umayyad Caliphate. Jan 1 661 C.E was the day when the Kharijites, a fanatical group assassinated Ali, marking the end of the Rashiudin Caliphate 9
Umayyad Caliphate: Sometimes referred to as the Omayyad s, the Caliphate were originally a large merchant family in the Quraysh that came from central Mecca. Led by Aby Sufyan, they were resistant to Islam at the start and only converted till 627. After this, they became important and influential administrators under Prophet Muhammad and his successors. It was during the sudden assassination of the third Caliph (Uthman) that Abu Sufyan s son, Mu awiyah emerged victorious over Ali (Prophet Muhammad s son in law). When Mu awiyah rose to power and overthrew the caliphs, he set himself as the first Umayyad Caliph. Umayyad rule was shared by two branches of the family; the Sufyanids on one side and Marwan I Ibn Al-Hakam and his successors on the other side. When Mu awiyah I reigned; he was the central authority in all of Damascus. Thanks to this, the Syrian army became the basis of Umayyad strength. This lead to the creation of a united empire able to control more provinces and root out and tribal rivalries. At its peak, the Umayyad Caliphate stretched from Spain to India. Under the Umayyad s, the Empire now expanded into Khorasan. A number of garrisoned cities were founded at Merv and Sistan. These cities would serve as bases for expeditions into Central Asia and Northwest India. A fleet of ships would conduct a series of successful campaigns against Constantinople. These sieges had the unintended side effect of offsetting the secular image of the state, because they were directed at Christians. There was a period of civil war when Mu awiyah ignored the regular succession of Caliphs and instead introduced the completely new concept of hereditary succession. The Umayyads moved the capital from Medina to Damascus as the city was centrally located, had access to the sea and was surrounded by good agricultural lands. 10
The Umayyad period was considered the formative period for Islamic Ar When Abd Al-Malik came to power, the Umayyad Caliphate had resumed their expansion. The areas of Sindh and Muhran in India were invaded while the garrisons stationed in Khorsan moved on and conquered, Tashkent, Fergana, Samarkand, Khwarezm and Bukhara. In an effort to aid in the Arabization of the conquered cities and towns, Arabic became the official language, the financial administration of the Empire became more streamlined, Arabs replaced Greek and Persian officials and a new Arabic coinage was introduced, replacing the Byzantine and Sasanian coins. A post service was also introduced between Damascus and provincial capitals, further improving communications. It was when the Syrian army suffered a great defeat at Byzantine Emperor Leo III, the cracks in the Caliphate started to show. This was followed by the fiscal reforms of Umar II which were intended to pacify the increasingly discontent group of Non-Arab Muslims. The reforms would place all Muslims at the same level, irrespective of ethnicity. Luckily Hisham Ibn Abd al-malik was able to temporarily stem the decline, albeit temporarily. On the other side however, Muslim expansion was reaching its end as the army was halted at Poitires. The forces in Anatolia were destroyed while the Syrian troops were reorganized to meet the challenge the Turks and Berbers created. After Hisham s death, a number of internal feuds between the Qays and Kalb (northern and southern Muslims respectively) erupted, culminating into major revolts in Syria, Khorasan and Iraq. The last Umayyad, Marwan II was soundly defeated at Zab River. The Mawali became involved with the Hashimiyyah, a faction that denied the legitimacy of Umayyad rule. This allowed Abu Al-Abbas Al-Saffah to become the Despite having Caliph, ushering in the Abbasid a long lasting dynasty. Empire in Cordoba, there It should be noted that while all are very few of the remaining Umayyads were works of art or hunted down and killed, Abd Alculture that shows the presence of the Rahman was able to escape and Umayyads become a ruler in Spain. This led to the Umayyad dynasty in Cordoba. Coins of the Umayyad Caliphate were based on Byzantine prototypes 11
Abbasid Caliphate: The name Abbasid is a derivation from the uncle of Prophet Muhammad, Al-Abbas. Al- Abbas was of the Hashimite clan from the Quraysh tribe in Mecca. The members of his family worked to gain control of the Empire from the Umayyads. It was thanks to skillful propaganda that they won support from the Shi ite Arabs and Persians in Khorasan. In 747, an open revolt was led by Abu Muslim against Umayyad Caliph Marwan II and his forces. The defeat of Marwan II at the battle of Zab River in Mesopotamia led to the proclamation of the first Abbasid Caliph, Abu Al-Abbas Al-Saffah. With the Abbasids in control, the Empire shifted focus from the West and aimed at expansion in the east. The capital shifted to the new city of Baghdad, while events in Persia and Transoxania were carefully watched. With the rise of the Abbasids, Spain, Egypt, North Africa and local dynasties claimed caliph status. This led to the Empire becoming national as members now came from the community itself and not the Arab nationality. Because the Abbasids rose to power with aid from many Persian converts. it was a sensbile move as the Abbasids took over much of the Persian government. The support of pious Muslims, led to the Abbasids publicly acknowledging the embryonic Islamic Law. 12
Between 750 and 833, the Abbasids focused on internal development and promoted commerce, arts, science and commerce. It was during the reign of Al-Mansur, Al-Rashid and Al-Ma moun that education developed at a rapid rate. When Al-Mu tasim rose to power, he introduced Non-Muslim Berber forces, Slav and Turkish mercenary forces into his personal army. Though the troops have been noted to have converted to Islam, unity through religion was no longer present. Thanks to this, the new powers were able to control the caliphate, eliminating anyone else whose views did not align with their own. The situation was further stressed by internal rivalries when the Buyids entered Baghdad. They demanded Al-Mustakfi be the ruler of the territory under their control. This event would spark a century long period, where much of the Islamic Empire was ruled by local dynasties. By 1055, the Abbasids were overthrown by the Seljuqs, who took what power the Caliph still had and tried to restore some order to the Empire. However by 1258, the dynasty fell during the Mongol siege of Baghdad. Harun al-rashid was a leading character in the famous 1001 nights During the Abbasid Caliphate, Baghdad was regarded as the centre of the Islamic world Mosque with grand dome Smaller palaces Gate Moat and ditch Walls 30 metres high Circle shape represents power and unity 13
The House of Wisdom The pursuit of knowledge that would lead to the founding of the Bayt al- Hikma or House of Wisdom all started Caliph Harun Al-Rashid. He built a large scientific library that housed an incredibly large book store. This store contained a number of manuscripts and books about subjects ranging from art to science, all in different languages. The works that the Caliph stored here was a culmination of book collecting by three generations of Caliphs. Started by Caliph Abu Ja far Al-Mansur (credited for creating the city of Baghdad), Caliph Mohammad Al-Mahdi and thirdly by Caliph Harun Al-Rashid. Al-Rashid developed a desire to collect books and manuscripts from his campaigns, travels and expeditions. The Scientific Academy that Al-Rashid constructed to house all these works would later be called the House of Wisdom. The House of Wisdom was also called the Al-Hikma Bookstore (Khizanat Al- Hikma) and the House of Wisdom Bookstore off Al- Ma moun (Khizanat Dar Al-Kutub Al-Ma mouniya). The earliest scientific manuscript of the Abbasid Caliphate 14
The House of Wisdom or Bayt al-hikma was referred to as such by Caliph Al-Rashid during his time. However, when his son Caliph Al-Ma moun took the reins of leadership, he expanded and extended the House of Wisdom to become the Dar al-hikma where there was a wing for each subject. It was here that translators, scribes, authors, writers, copyists, scientists and others would meet every day. They would talk about reading, writing, discourse, scribing, translation, dialogue and discussion. The House of Wisdom was a major center of debate, research and thought in the Islamic world The books and manuscripts dealing with numerous scientific subjects and philosophical concepts and ideas were translated there. Besides Arabic and Persian; Farsi, Hebrew, Syriac, Aramaic, Greek and Latin was also spoken here. There were also a few scholars who knew Sanskrit, as it was used to translate Indian manuscripts in astronomy and mathematics. Hunayn Ibn Ishaq was one of the most famous translators during the Golden Age of Islam Among the famous translators of the Bayt Al-Hikma, Youhanna bin Al-Batriq Al- Turjuman was particularly good at translating philosophical books rather than science. He also translated the Book of Animals (Kitab Al-Haywan) that was first written by Aristotle. Besides Al-Turjuman there was Hunany Ibn Ishaq who was known for translating some of the works of Greek physician Hipocrates. 15