SOCIETY 1. Reasons for movement and travel by men and women during the period: 1. In seach of work and livelihood 5. Women travelled, but no accounts written by women have been found. 2. For escaping from natural disasters 4. Trade and commerce. 3. For Pilgrimage 2. Important foreign travelers who have left detailed accounts of life and times of areas they visited: 1. Al Biruni from Uzbekistan, 11th century. 'Kitab-ul-Hind'. 2.Ibn Batuta from Morocco, 14th century. Book 'Rihla' 3.Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi from Herat, account of Vijaynagar, 15th century. 3. 4.Francois Bernier from France 17th century, from 1656 to 1668. He also travelled with the Mughal army. Bernier's works were published in France in 1670-71 and translated into English, Dutch, German and Italian. It was reprinted 8 times in French and 3 times in English by 1684. 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 1
4. Accounts by Indian men vary in content and purpose: 1. Trade accounts that include trade routes and items traded. 5. Religious Issues 2. Matters of Court and administration 4. Popular customs, traditions and folklores with in the kingdom or empire 3. Architectural designs of temples, cities and monuments. Questions at the end of the Chapter Answer in 100 to 150 words. 1. Write a note on the Kitab-ul-Hind. Answer. Kitab-ul-Hind was written by Al-Biruni, who came from Uzbekistan to India, in the 11th century. He was a learned scholar who knew Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew and Sanskrit languages. Kitab-ul- Hind was written and published in Arabic as popular travel literature. It is a voluminous text, in 80 chapters. Its contents include philosophy, festivals, 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 2
astronomy alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and religion. Each chapter has a distinct structure. It starts with a question, as was the practice in Sanskrit texts, followed by a description and concluded with a comparison with other cultures. The geometric like structure of each chapter of the book has a remarkable precision and predictability The book is written in simple and lucid Arabic which indicates that it was meant for people beyond the western borders of the then Hindustan. (140 words) 2. Compare and contrast the perspectives from which Ibn Battuta and Bernier wrote their accounts of their travels in India. Answer. Ibn Battuta came from Morocco in the 14th century, while Bernier came from France in the 17 th century. Battuta s perspective is of an Islamic scholar, three centuries earlier than Bernier. Battuta was appointed as a Qazi by Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Sultan of Delhi. During his stay he wrote Rihia in simple and lucid Arabic. The book meticulously records his observations about the new cultures, peoples, beliefs, values. Bernier s perspective is of a Roman Catholic Frenchman who was in India for twelve years in 17 th century. Mughal Emperor Shah Jehan appointed him as a doctor, a political philosopher, scientist and a historian for his eldest son. Bernier travelled widely and wrote several accounts. He compared many situations in the Mughal Empire with that in France under King Louis the Fourteenth. He dedicated his major writings to the French King. Compared to France, Bernier found the situation in India very bleak. (149 words) 3. Discuss the picture of urban centres that emerges from Bernier s account. Answer. Bernier was a political philosopher intellectual from Europe. His travel account compares and contrasts Indian situations with those in France. Even though 15 per cent of total population lived in urban centres in Mughal 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 3
India, Bernier refers to them as camp towns. As he was travelling with the army he found only abandoned and uncultivated fields. This would only be in summer season. Therefore, he found the situations in Indian camp towns depressing. He found no middle class in India between the super-rich Mughal monarchy and impoverished farmers. This only indicates that he was unable to interact with the merchant or business community in the permanent town of Mughal India. Bernier emphasizes the superiority of France in detailed observations, reflections, and critical insights. He included the differences in a hierarchical format in which the Mughal India was presented as being inferior to France in particular and to Europe in general. (150 words) 4. Analyse the evidence for slavery provided by Ibn Battuta. Answer. Ibn Battuta records that when he reached Sind, he purchased horses, camels, and slaves as gifts for Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq. When he reached Multan, he presented the governor with a slave and horse together with raisins and almonds. Slaves were freely sold in the markets like any other commodity. Battuta also records differences among slaves. The female slaves in the service of the Sultan were experts in music and dance. Ibn Battuta witnessed their performance at the wedding of Sultan s sister. Female slaves were also employed by the Sultan to keep a watch on his nobles. Men slaves were generally employed in domestic tasks such as carrying palanquins. The price of slaves was low. The price of female slaves for domestic work was very low. Every household in towns kept at least two domestic slaves. Most female slaves were captured in raids. (145 words) 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 4
5. What were the elements of the practice of sati that drew the attention of Bernier? Answer. Most travellers of medieval times have noted social inequalities suffered by women as normal or the natural state of affairs. Burning of women at stake in the name of witch hunting was common in European countries. In France itself, Joan of Arc was burnt at stake for rebelling against the established order. However, Bernier described the practice of sati in detail to highlight the inferiority of the Asian culture compared to the French and European culture. He noted that while some women seemed to embrace death cheerfully, often they were forced. In particular were the cases of child brides of twelve years of age who showed dread in face of the pyre and had to be carried by force and tied to the woods of the pyre. This he takes as evidence of the barbaric Asians without saying anything about the European practice of burning at stake. Write a short essay in about 250 to 300 words on the following: 5. Discuss Al-Biruni s understanding of the caste system. (144 words) Answer. Al Biruni tried to understand the society of Hindustan that was strange and very different from societies he had seen during his earlier travels. He had to overcome several barriers of understanding. Main barriers were of a different language Sanskrit, the different religious beliefs of Hinduism and the social structure based on castes. Another reason for limited understanding of caste system by Al Biruni s was that he depended entirely on the Sanskrit religious works of the Brahamans, the Vedas, the Puranas, the Bhagvad Gita and works of Patanjali, the Manusmriti. He did not interact with people of different castes or read the books on the subject in other languages of India. 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 5
On basis of his limited references to Sanskrit works, Al-Biruni disapproved of the notion of pollution. He observes that whatever falls in to a state of impurity tries and strives to regain its original condition of purity. He gives the examples of Sun cleaning the air, and salts in the sea preventing it from getting polluted. AlBiruni argues that if nature did not clean and recycle the environment, life on earth would become impossible. Therefore, Al Biruni saw the concept of social pollution that is intrinsic to the caste system as being against the laws of nature. Al Biruni records that in practice, in the system of varnas, binds the Brahamans and Khatriyas in one group as they interact very closely. Similarly, the Vaishayas and Shudras, despite differences, live together in the same towns and villages, and mix together in the same house and lodgings. They also had close economic relations as the low castes were expected to provide inexpensive labour to the owners of the land who were Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. The Mahajan vaishyas were moneylenders to low caste farmers and others in a village. (298 words) 6. Do you think Ibn Battuta s account is useful in arriving at an understanding of life in contemporary urban centres? Give reasons for your answer. Answer. Battuta s account is useful in the understanding of life in contemporary urban centres to a limited extent. This is because his educational background and upbringing had been in Islamic law in Morocco. He was appointment as an Imam in the court of Sultan of Delhi. He travelled with the army of the Sultan. When the army camped on route, temporary settlements came up at that spot. These were the camp towns Battuta refers to. On the way Battuta records that he saw uncultivated fields and barren lands during his travels. This only indicates that he either travelled during summer season before the monsoons, or travelled through the areas that had been destroyed by raids of Sultan s army. 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 6
The camp towns were different from the established urban centres. Battuta records that the urban centres were full of opportunities for those having skills and resources. The towns were densely populated and prosperous. Most towns had crowded streets and bright colourful markets. There was a wide variety of goods sold in these markets. Delhi is described as thea vast city with a great population. Slaves were freely sold in the urban markets and raids were conducted regularly to capture slaves. Slaves lived in the households of their masters. The price of male slaves for domestic work was low, and that of women slaves was very low. Most urban households had at least two women slaves. However, Battuta s account is valuable for names of urban centres existing at the time and the modes of travel in the 14th century. It took forty days to travel from Multan to Delhi, and about fifty days from Sind to Delhi. Delhi from Gwalior was at a distance of ten days of travel, while it took forty days to Daulatabad. (292 words) 7. Discuss the extent to which Bernier s account enables historians to reconstruct contemporary rural society. Answer. Bernier s account enable historian to collaborate the records of other travellers from western countries. The accounts have to be accepted keeping in view the facts of Bernier s background and of the audience in France for whom he was writing. Bernier was a doctor and a political philosopher from France and he dedicated his travel accounts to his King Louis the Fourteenth. This implies that his accounts record what he thought the readership in France would like to read. This is borne out by the fact that his accounts were not only very popular in France after publication, but were translated into many European languages. 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 7
This is also indicated by the fact that in compares the situation in India and France throughout his accounts. The comparative account is biased in favour of France and presents rural India very bleakly. Bernier describes his horror at the practice of social customs such as sati. The treatment of women in the 17 th century urban and rural societies of all countries was unfair. Yet it was taken to be natural and normal as women were considered to be inferior to men. However, in the practice of sati Bernier found evidence to show the European society how Asian and African societies were barbaric. This justified the superiority of the white race in European countries who were the civilized. Bernier warns the European rulers not to adopt the highly exploitative taxation model of Mughal Empire. Bernier s perception was that all land was owned by the Mughal Emperor, and it was distributed by the state among the nobles. There was a total absence of private property. Due to this the tiller of the land could not transfer the title of the ownership to his son or another family member. In Bernier s view this absence of private property had disastrous consequences on the economy and the society. (308 words) 10 x 10 Learning TM Page 8