Chapter 2 Conditional sentence THE FUTURE IS IN OUR HANDS http://www.lenntech.com/greenhouse-effect/climate-change-glossary.htm Discussion Questions 1. If you were American President, what would you do to heal the world? 2. What is being done in Thailand to solve this problem? If you had power and influence, how would you solve of the environmental problems? Conditional sentence is part of adverb clause that you have learned in details from Forms and Usage in Modern English I. However, it is very difficult for non native like Thais since the forms of the conditional clauses do not show the meanings the ways the sentences are formed which will be mentioned later in more details in this chapter.
Read the following letter to the editor written by a resident of Los Angeles who is concerned about the problems that exist in that city. IT S A NICE PLACE TO VISIT BUT I WOULDN T WANT TO LIVE HERE Dear Editor: 1. I moved to Los Angeles 40 years ago from the East coast because it was being lauded as the closest thing to paradise in this country. For years, Los Angeles lived up to that description, but unfortunately that is no longer true. If someone had asked me 40 years ago, I never would have predicted that his city would change so much in such a short time. It seems that the leaders here should be doing more to put an end to the homelessness, gang violence, drug abuse, and severe smog that are placing our city. If there weren t such serious problems here in L.A. it would still be a desirable place to live, as it was in the past. 2. One of our leaders has the habit of claiming that homeless people have the problems they do because they re comfortable in that lifestyle. This is obviously just a feeble excuse for supporting what he feels are more worthwhile causes. Well, if he had paid more attention to this problem from the beginning of his administration, the number of comfortable homeless people on the streets wouldn t have risen so rapidly. 3. Drug abuse and the gang violence that results from it are making our streets unsafe and our schools a threat to our children s lives. If these problems were solved, we could send our children to school without worrying about whether they would make it home. Not long ago, if a child was caught smoking a cigarette on school grounds, severe punishment was enforced. Nowadays, children are caught selling or using drugs, and some of them carry weapons to arm themselves in wars against their peers. 4. Finally, we all know that the smog level in this city has reached dangerous proportions. If stricter emission control laws aren t enforced soon, the air that we breathe to keep us alive will eventually kill us. 5. I certainly hope that my concerns are shared by other people who came here for a higher standard of living and a more comfortable life but are finding their lives at risk instead. A CONCERNED RESIDENT Adapted from Carlisi, K. and Steer, J: The Advance Grammar Book. The Structure of the Conditional Sentence Most conditional sentences have a subordinate clause beginning with if and a main clause, which in most cases contains a modal and a main verb (Beaumont & Granger, 1998, Celce- Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999, Emmerson & Vince, 2003, Yule, 2006). As in other complex sentences, the order of the clauses is optional. Look at the following examples and notice the structure and punctuation of both sentences If I lived downtown, I could walk to work. I could walk to work if I lived downtown.
If-Clause (Subordinate clause) If I lived downtown, When and if Compare: We use if for things we are not sure will happen e.g., If I see Sarah, I ll invite her to the party. (Perhaps I ll see Sarah, perhaps I won t.) I ll visit Martin if I go to Manchester. (Perhaps I ll go to Manchester, perhaps I won t. Main Clause I could walk to work. We use when for things we are sure will happen e.g., When I see Sally, I ll invite her to the party. (I m sure I ll see Sally.) I ll visit Martin when I go to Manchester. (I m sure I ll go to Manchester.) The Function of Conditional Sentences Conditional sentences deal with imagined situations: some are possible, some are unlikely, some are impossible (Beaumont & Granger, 1998, Yule, 2006, Coe, Harrison & Paterson, 2006, Carter & McCarthy, 2007, Cullen & Hopkins, 2007). The following chart summarizes the main type of conditional sentences and the function each of them serve (Carlisi, & Steer, 1991). Type Explanation Example Future Depending upon the condition, something may happen in the future. If we clean up our city, it will be a nicer place to live. Present Unreal Describes a situation that is not true or I wouldn t have to deal with
Past Unreal Present or Past Habitual activity. not real at the present time. Describes a situation that was not true or real in the past Depending upon the condition, an activity was done habitually in the present or past. these problems if I lived in the country. If L.A. hadn t been so desirably years ago, I wouldn t have moved here. If people moved here, it was for the beautiful weather and the wide open spaces. It is often suggested that there are three types of conditional sentence. This hypothesis is based on the fact that three different verb forms can be used after if in conditional sentences. Thus, the supposition is concerned with the way the conditional is formed and not with the underlying meanings of the forms used (McLeod & Woods, 1990, Azar, 1999, Beaumont & Granger, 1998, Yule, 2006, Coe, Harrison & Paterson, 2006, Carter & McCarthy, 2007, Cullen & Hopkins, 2007). When we base our hypothesis underlying meanings, there are basically the two following types of conditional sentence: 1. the possible conditional; 2. the impossible conditional. 1. The possible conditional The possible conditional expresses a real possibility that an event or action might occur in the present or future or could have occurred in the past ((McLeod & Woods, 1990, Azar, 1999, Beaumont & Granger, 1998, Yule, 2006, Coe, Harrison & Paterson, 2006, Carter & McCarthy, 2007).
Look at these examples: (a) If it rains on Saturday, we won t go to the fair. (We don t know what the weather will be like on Saturday, but rains is possible) (b) If he comes home after seven, he always buys KFC. (He doesn t always come home after seven, but there are occasions when he does; and these are when he buys KFC.) (c) If it rained on Saturday, he wouldn t go to the fair. (As in (a), but more unlikely.) (d) If he came home after seven, he always bought KFC. (As in (b), but an event which happened in the past.) The form is shown in the following chart: Subordinate clause (a) If + present (b) If + present (c) If + past (d) If + past Main clause modal (usually will) + main verb (infinitive without to) main verb, present tense modal (usually would) + main verb (infinitive without to) main verb, past tense 2. The impossible conditional The impossible conditional expresses an imaginary situation which is impossible (McLeod & Woods, 1990, Azar, 1999, Beaumont & Granger, 1998, Emmerson & Vince, 2003, Yule, 2006, Coe, Harrison & Paterson, 2006, Carter & McCarthy, 2007). For examples: (a) With reference to the present, the situation cannot occur now or in the future.
(b) With reference to the present, the situation did not occur in the past. (c) With reference to the past, the situation did not occur. Look at these examples: (a) reference to the present, but cannot occur: (i) If you had a video, you could record it yourself. (But you haven t, so you won t be able to.) (ii) If my father were alive, he would be 90 now. (But he isn t; he died ten years ago.) (b) reference to present, but did not occur: (i) If you had a video, you could have recorded it yourself last night. (You don t have a video, so you didn t record it.) (ii) If my father were alive, he would have been 90 last week. (But he died ten years ago.) (c) reference to the past, and did not occur: (i) If you had had a video, you could have recorded it yourself last night. (You didn t have a video last night, so you didn t record it.) The form is shown in the following chart. Subordinate clause (a) If + past (b) If + past (c) If + past perfect Main clause past modal + main verb (infinitive without to) past modal + main verb (past infinitive without to) past modal + main verb ( past infinitive without to) 3. Alternative forms
A conditional is not always expressed with an if clause. On some occasions (especially more formal ones) an inversion form can be used (McLeod & Woods, 1990). Look at these examples: If + present can be replaced by should + inversion: Should he come home after seven, he always buys KFC. If + past can be replaced by were + inversion: Were it to rain on Saturday, we wouldn t go to the fair. If + past perfect can be replaced by inversion with the auxiliary had: Had you had a video, you could have recorded it yourself. The clauses can go in either order. For example: If my father were alive, he would be 90 now. My father would be 90 now if he were alive. Note that when speaking of a future possibility, will is rarely used in the if clause. In the following example the will is used to emphasize a determination and possible habit on the part of the subject: If you will arrive late, you must expect to miss the food. The following example expresses the same meaning, but lacks the emphasis (this is more common): If you arrive late, you must expect to miss the food. Would is used similarly to express a past habit. If you would arrive late you must have expected to miss the food. Conditional 2: possible The possible conditional expresses a real possibility than an action or event could occur in the present or in the future, or could have occurred in the past. There are three types of possible conditional (McLeod & Woods, 1990, Azar, 1999, Beaumont & Granger, 1998,
Emmerson & Vince, 2003, Yule, 2006, Coe, Harrison & Paterson, 2006, Carter & McCarthy, 2007). 1. Present and past habit Look at these examples: If he arrives at the office late, everyone knows it s going to be a difficult day. If she saw even the smallest fly trapped in a jar, she would be upset. Here if can be replaced by whenever. It indicates a habit or continually repeated situation that may occur at any time, or that used to occur regularly in the past. 2. Deductions Look at these examples: If he wins today, he stands a good chance of being selected. If the rains do not come again this year, then the country will not have enough water. If it rains next month, there should be enough water to last until the monsoon comes. If you wanted to control your finances, you d welcome a Home-owners Loan plan. Here the speaker is making a deduction about future possibilities or attitudes. Both the Present and Past tenses may be used. The use of the Past, however, usually reflects a greater uncertainty. 3. Future possibilities Look at these examples: If two more people join, we can run the course.
If two more people joined, we could run the course. If you re thinking of buying your first home, send for your free Home-buying kit. If you undercharge, you could quickly go out of business. Here the speaker is talking about possible events or actions in the future. Once again, the use of the Past tense shows the speaker is less certain. Alternative form The conditional is not always expressed through the use of an if clause, but may be shown through the use of inversion or with the Imperative and a co-ordinating clause. For examples: Start a savings account now and we ll give you 500 Baht. (If you start a savings account now, we ll give you 500 Baht.) Don t undercharge or you could quickly go out of business. (If you undercharge, you could quickly go out of business.) Conditional 3: Impossible The impossible conditional expresses an imagined situation which could not occur or did not occur. There are three types of impossible conditional (McLeod & Woods, 1990, Azar, 1999, Beaumont & Granger, 1998, Emmerson & Vince, 2003, Yule, 2006, Coe, Harrison & Paterson, 2006, Carter & McCarthy, 2007).. 1. Impossible now (or improbable future) Look at these examples: (a) If you had a video, you could record it yourself tonight.
(But you haven t got a video, so you won t be able to.) (b) If she had the time, she would do it. (But she hasn t got the time.) (c) If my father were alive, he d be 90 now. (But he s dead, so he isn t.) 2. Non-existent past (referring to the present) Look at these examples: (a) If you had a video, you could have recorded it yourself last night. (But you didn t, so you didn t record the program.) (b) If my father were alive, he would have been 90 last birthday. (But he s dead, so he wasn t.) Compare the different tenses used in 1(a) and 2(a); and also the tenses used in 1(c) and 2(b). 3. Non-existent past (referring to the past) Look at these examples: (a) If you had had a video, you could have recorded it yourself last night. (But you didn t, so you didn t record the program.) (b) If the car had started, I would have been on time. (But the car didn t start.) (c) If it had rained, the performance would have been cancelled. (But it didn t rain.) In all these examples we are looking at events or situations which cannot occur or did not occur. With the past form of the verb to be, were is sometimes used instead of was in the if clause. The form were is considered more correct grammatically, but was is frequently used in less formal situations. For example: If he were here now or If he was here now If I were rich or If I was rich
In the fixed phrase If I were you, the use of was is not acceptable. In the inversion alternative form, only were is acceptable. With the impossible conditional, the only acceptable alternative form is the inversion. For example: Were my father alive, he would be 90 now. Had you had a video, you could have recorded it yourself last night. Conditional 4: Unless Unless is known as the negative conditional. It stands in place of except if/except on condition that (McLeod & Woods, 1990, Emmerson & Vince, 2003, Duckworth, 2009). Look at these examples: Stamford will be dropped from the team unless he improves his performance. (The only way Stamford can stay in the team is to improve his performance. He s playing very badly at the moment.) She always comes unless she s sick. (The only reason she wouldn t come would be if she were sick.) It is used only for possible conditionals. For example: The government will sue, if the book isn t withdrawn. (Possible) The government will sue unless the book is withdrawn. With the impossible conditional, we must use if.not For example: The government would have sued if the book hadn t been withdrawn. (Impossible) The version with unless is unacceptable. For example: *The government would have sued unless the book had been withdrawn. Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999) add that unless is frequently used along with negative imperatives if the speaker is giving an ultimatum or a warning. The unless precedes the condition that is necessary for neutralizing the negation in the imperative:
Don t run a marathon unless you run long distances regularly. (affirmative implication: if you run long distances regularly, you can run in a marathon.) Don t apply for admission to graduate school unless you have at least a 3.25 GPA. (affirmative implication: if you have at least a 3.25 GPA, you can apply for admission to graduate school.) Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999) also suggest that for the case of unless, the condition can be used only if in place of the unless clause. For example: You (can/should) apply for admission to graduate school only if you have at least 3.25 undergraduate GPA. (negative implication: If you don t have at least a 3.25 undergraduate GPA, don t apply for admission to graduate school.) However, Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999) assert that an unless clause can be used with an affirmative result clause, too. This is particularly true if future plans are being discussed; for example: We will vacation in Hawaii unless our schedule changes between now and May. (implication: We expect to vacation in Hawaii but our schedule might change between now and May. If it does, we won t go.) Alternative form As with other conditionals, there are alternative ways of expressing the unless form. Look at these examples: Stamford should improve otherwise/or he will be dropped. (Unless Stamford improves, he ll be dropped.) The book must be withdrawn otherwise/or the government will sue.
Withdraw the book otherwise/or the government will sue. (Unless the book is withdrawn, the government will sue.) Note from the examples above that in the alternative forms, the obligation is stressed by the use of should, must or the imperative form in the clause originally governed by unless. Conditional 5: Wishing Wishing is very close to expressing a condition. There is often a second part to a wish, which is either spoken or unspoken (McLeod & Woods, 1990, Yule, 2006, Coe, Harrison & Paterson, 2006, Carter & McCarthy, 2007). For example: I wish I were at home now, then I could have something refreshing to drink. This could be rewritten as a conditional sentence: If I were at home now, I could have something refreshing to drink. The difference is that the conditional is neutral and does not express the stronger wish. With wishing there is a feeling of regret for something. When you use wish, the situation is impossible. For example, when you say, I wish I had bought the coat after all, the reality is that you did not buy the coat. But there is the sense of regret that you did not buy it. Wishing can be expressed through either the verb to wish or the conditional reference if only. They both express the sense of regret for something that is not, will not be or was not. The sentence structure to express wishing is similar to that expressing the impossible or hypothetical conditional. The act of wishing is normally in the present, but the impossibility of the wish is expressed by the use of Past tense. There are three types of wishing: 1. Impossible now I wish I was at home now. I lived by the sea.
I could paint like that. If only they didn t ask so many questions. she wasn t so poor. In this group, the wish is a regret for a situation that is present. This is expressed in the second part of the structure with the Past Simple. Could here is the Past form of can. 2. Improbable future they would sign the treaty soon. I wish the sun would shine. she wouldn t always argue. If only he d make up his mind. they were coming here tomorrow. Here the wisher is regretting something that will or will not happen, or something that continually happens. The wish is expressed through the use of would or could or the Past Continuous. 3. Non-existent past I wish If only I had bought that coat after all. he had said so at the time. that shop hadn t closed. they hadn t driven so fast. there d been some good dance music. In this case, the wish is a regret for something that has already taken place, and is expressed through the use of the Past Perfect.
Conclusion: Conditional clauses considering in terms of forms, there are actually various forms and two meanings: possible and impossible conditionals. Since we are non native speakers, we should pay more attention to these types of sentences for a better understanding. Exercises Exercise 1. When and if Directions: Complete the telephone conversation using if or when. Cindy lives in Briton. She is going to visit her friend Sarah in London on Sunday. Sarah: What time are you coming on Sunday, Cindy? Cindy: I m not sure yet. There s a train from Brighton at 9.00. If I take that one, I ll arrive in London at 10.20. The next train is at 9.35..1. I catch that one, I won t be there until 11.25.
Sarah: Will you phone me.2.you know which train you re catching? I d like to meet you at the station 3.you arrive. Cindy: Yes, all right. I may phone you tomorrow. But.4.I don t, I ll phone you on Friday evening. OK? Sarah: All right. What would you like to do.5 you re here on Sunday? Cindy: Shall we go for a walk.6 the whether is fine? Sarah: Yes, all right. We could go to the zoo 7 you like! Exercise 2. Conditional sentence Directions: Put the verbs into the correct form: will/won t or the present simple. these things true? Example: If we keep on (keep on) using more and more cars, we ll run out (run out) of oil. 1. If we.(run out) of oil, we.(need) other kinds of energy. 2. Pollution (increase) if we.(use) more oil and coal. 3. If pollution..(increase), more and more trees (die). 4. The climate (change) if more trees.. (die). 5. If we (try) to control pollution, it (be) very expensive. 6. If we..(not control) pollution soon, it (be) too late! Directions: Complete the sentences using the words in the box. For example: If I don t leave now, I might be late. have finished can lend might be should need are feeling may go should phone 1. If you need any more money, I you some. 2. You can go now if you 3. If the weather is fine tomorrow, we.for a picnic. 4. Just ask me if you..any help. 5. If anyone for me while I am out, tell them I ll be back at 4 o clock. Are
6. Go to bed now if you.tired. Exercise 3. Conditional sentence Directions: Complete the sentences with your own words. 1. I would have.., but I didn t have enough time. 2. I couldn t have without my parents help. 3. I would.., but I don t have enough money. 4. I ran out of time. Otherwise, I would have. 5. I could, but I don t want to. 6. I would have.., but I didn t know about it. 7. Without water, all life on earth would.. 8. I set my alarm for six every day. Otherwise, I would.. 9. I set my alarm for six this morning. Otherwise, I would have 10. I would have.., but I didn t Exercise 4. Conditional sentence Directions: Complete the sentences with the verbs in parentheses. Some of the verbs are passive. 1. If I could speak Japanese, I (spend) next year studying in Japan. 2. Had I known Mr. Jung was in the hospital, I (send).him a note and some flowers. 3. We will move into our new house next month if it (complete).by then. 4. It s too bad that it s snowing. If it (snow, not), we could go for a drive. 5. I was very tired. Otherwise, I (go)..to the party with you last night.
6. I m glad I have so many friends and such a wonderful family. Life without friends or family (be).lonely for me. 7. My grandfather is no longer alive, but if he (be), I m sure he (be)...proud of me. 8. If you (sleep, not).last night when we arrived, I would have asked you to go with us, but I didn t want to wake you up. 9. Bill has such a bad memory that he (forget) his head if it (be, not) attached to his body. 10. According to one report, the average hen lays 247 eggs a year, and the average person eats 255 eggs a year. If hens (outnumber, not)..people, the average person (eat, not)..255 eggs a year. 11. A: What would you be doing right now if you (be, not).in class? B: I (sleep) 12. A: Boy, is it ever hot today! B: You said it! If there (be) only a breeze, it (be, not) quite so unbearable. 13. A: Why isn t Peggy Anderson in class today? B: I don t know, but I m sure she (be, not) absent unless she (have) a good reason. 14. A: Hi. Sorry I m late. B: That s okay. A: I (be) here sooner, but I had a car trouble. 15. A: Want to ride on the roller coaster? B: No way! I (ride, not)..on the roller coaster even if you paid me a million dollars! 16. A: Hi, Pat. Come on in.
B: Oh, I didn t know you had company. I (come, not) if (I, know) someone was here. A: That s okay. Come in and let me introduce you to my friends. 17. A: Are you coming to the party? B: I don t think so, but if I change my mind, I (tell).you. Exercise 5. Conditional sentence Directions: Complete the following sentences with the appropriate form for the type of conditional indicated in brackets. 1. If the treaty (be) signed, we (will get rid of) the bombs. (Impossible) 2. If the workers (go) on strike now, they (will lose) a lot of money. (Impossible) 3. If I (learn) to read and write, I (would be) a rich businessman by now. (Impossible) 4. If the sails of the ship (be) black, that (will mean) we ve lost the battle. (Possible) 5. If they (cut) taxes next year, we (will buy) a new car. (Possible) 6. If your (receive) information about retirement scheme, you (should ask) several cautious questions. (Possible) 7. If she (wake) early, she (would be) on the plane that crashed. (Impossible) 8. If you (hear) a rapid series of bleeps, it (mean) the line is engaged. (Possible) 9. If they (not hear) the bell, they (drown). (Possible) 10. I (have) a cup of tea, if you (make) some. (Possible) Exercise 6. Conditional sentence Directions: Indicate the type of possible conditional exemplified in the sentences below. Put the number of the sentence in the appropriate column in the following chart. 1. If he goes out on a cold day, he often wears a knitted white scarf. 2. If he wrote to his nephew, he always enclosed some money. 3. If she posts it today, you will get it by Saturday. 4. If income tax is reduced, the government could win the next election.
5. If Brownlow is made Minister for Transport, we can expect a lot of changes in the law. 6. If it snows, then we won t go to Manchester. 7. If you ve got some money to invest, contact Chapman s for advice. 8. If you buy that painting, you ll be making a good investment. 9. If the price of that house gets any higher, I won t be able to afford it. 10. If you elect me, I shall bring about changes in the social welfare system. Past habit Present habit Deduction Future possibilities Exercise 7. Conditional sentence Directions: Read through the sentences below and identify which type of impossible conditional they exemplify. Indicate your choice in the following chart. 1. If you hadn t read the instructions carefully, you could have made a lot of mistakes. 2. If they had really been to the Gambia, they would know that the people speak English and not French. 3. If the university had been open that day, there wouldn t have been the trouble with the Italian students. 4. If I was going to Bangkok by car, I could take the package with me. 5. If the corner shop were open, I could buy some bread right now. 6. If I d got the right lottery number, I d be a rich man by now. 7. If the film had been here last week, I could have seen it. 8. I d be drinking tea by the Spanish Steps if I were in Rome at this moment. 9. There d be no droughts anywhere, if it rained like this in Africa. 10. If the government had supported the pay award for the miners, it wouldn t have been defeated.
Impossible now or improbably future Non-existent past (present reference) Non-existent past (past reference) Exercise 8. Conditional sentence Directions: There are several things Somsak wants to do, but can t. From the information given below, express these in terms of thee impossible conditional. Use both forms. An example has been written for you. Example: 1. He wants to record the television pop concert, but he hasn t got a video. Conditional: If he had a video, he could record the television pop concert. Had he a video, he could record the television pop concert. 1. He wants to drive to Chiang Mai, but he s got to see his mother in Lampang. 2. He needs to buy some new shirts, but he hasn t got any money. 3. He wants to attend the dance class, but it s full. 4. He d like to go skating on the river, but the ice has melted. 5. He wants to study at the university, but he failed his exams. Pensri is now very old. Looking back on her life, there are many things she regrets she didn t do. From the information given below make impossible conditionals about the past. Use both forms. An example has been written for you. Example: She wanted to be an explorer, but she didn t keep fit and do any exercise. Conditional: If she had kept fit and done some exercise, she could have been explorer.
Had she kept fit and done some exercise, she could have been an explorer. 6. She thought of being a writer, but she wasn t very good with words. 7. She planned to buy a large house in Bangkok, but didn t save hard enough. 8. She wanted to be the Prime Minister, but she wasn t seriously interested in politics. 9. She tried to be a pilot, but they wanted only men in those days. 10. She imagined being a trapeze artiste, but she didn t like heights. Exercise 9. Conditional 4 Directions: Rewrite the following sentences, using unless or otherwise/or. Some examples have been written for you. Examples: Fulham football team must improve, or they ll be at the bottom. Rewrite: Unless Fulham football team improves, they ll be at the bottom. Unless you get a car license, you ll be fined 500 Baht. Rewrite: You must get a car license or/otherwise you ll be fined 500 Baht. 1. You should wait until next week to change your money, otherwise you ll lose on the exchange rate. 2. You must take that book back to the library, or you ll have to pay a heavy fine. 3. Unless the candidate gets 75%, she doesn t stand a chance of being admitted to the course. 4. Unless they hurry, we ll miss the train. 5. Drive more slowly, or you ll have an accident. 6. Unless you order that magazine, you can never get it. It s so popular.
7. Unless you have a lot of money, you shouldn t think of living in Tokyo. 8. Start early, or you ll get held up in the traffic. 9. He must attend the next meeting, otherwise they ll ask him to resign. 10. How can you hope to get better, unless you do what the doctor tells you? Exercise 10. Conditional 5 Directions: Identify to which group the following expressions of wishing belong: impossible now, improbable future or non-existent past. 1. She wishes she hadn t married him. 2. They wish they were going to Australia with them. 3. I only wish I had just a little bit more money. 4. If only she she d seen that dangerous corner sooner. 5. If only they would arrive on time. 6. If only I d posted it on Tuesday instead of on Wednesday. 7. If only Caesar hadn t gone to the Forum on 15 March. 8. I wish South Africa wasn t so far from Thailand. 9. She wishes she was going to see the King. 10. I wish I d written that. References Azar, B. (1999). Understanding and Using English Grammar. New York: Longman Beaumont, D., Granger, C. (1998). The Heinemann ELT: English Grammar. Oxford: Macmillan. Carter, R., McCarthy, M. (2006). Cambridge Grammar of English: A Comprehensive Guide Spoken and Written English Grammar and Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Carlisi, K., & Steer, J. (1991). The advanced grammar book. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999).The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL Teacher s Course (2 nd ed.). Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Coe, N., Harrison, M., & Paterson, K. (2006). Oxford Practice Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press Cullen, P., & Hopkins, D. (2007). Cambridge Grammar for IELTS. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Duckworth, M. (2009). Business Grammar & Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Emmerson, P., Vince, M. (2003). Intermediate Language Practice: English Grammar and Vocabulary. Oxford: Macmillan. Huddlestone, R., & Pullum, G. (2005). A Student s Introduction to English Grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. MacDonald, A. J. (1988). The Macmillan college workbook. London: Collier Macmillan. McLeod, N., Woods, E. (1990). Using English Grammar: Meaning and Form. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall. Vince, M. (2008). Macmillan English Grammar in Context. Macmillan Yule, G. (2006). Oxford Practice Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. http://www.lenntech.com/greenhouse-effect/climate-change-glossary.htm