Historic Roots Natural moral law has its roots in the classics; o Aristotle, in Nichomacheon Ethics suggests that natural justice is not the same as that which is just by law. Our laws may vary culturally but natural justice is independent and universal. The natural law is that which everywhere is equally valid, and depends not upon being or not being received that which is natural and unchangeable, and has the same power everywhere, just as fire burns both here and in Persia. (Aristotle) For Aristotle, everything has a purpose. That purpose is revealed in design where design is natural form. Fulfilment of this design is the supreme good. o The ancient Stoics taught the important of logos, that is rationality which governs the world, that rationality gives natural law. o Cicero (Roman) in his work On The Republic forms the classic description of natural moral law, binding rationality to nature. True law is right reason in agreement with Nature...it is of universal application, unchanging and everlasting... we need not look outside ourselves for an expounder or interpreter of it. And there will not be different laws at Rome and at Athens, or different laws now and in the future, but one eternal and unchangeable law will be valid for all nations and for all times, and there will be one master and one ruler, that is, God, over us all, for He is the author of this law, its promulgator, and its enforcing judge. Whoever is disobedient is fleeing from himself and denying his human nature, and by reason of this very fact he will suffer the worst penalties, even if he escapes what is commonly considered punishment. (Cicero) o St. Paul gives biblical support for it in Romans 2, where a law is said to be written in the heart of the gentiles.
Aquinas Aquinas believed o We are naturally inclined towards natural moral law. That is to say we are by nature Good. (St. Paul Romans quote) o There is an ideal human nature which we aspire to, this is living in perfect harmony with natural law and God. o Humans are not perfect, but since they are created by God in His image, they are close to it; therefore what comes naturally is a good guide to what God wants us to do. o Since humans are by nature good, evil is explained as the pursuit of what appears to be good, but is in fact not good at all. Evil is therefore a mistake or misjudgement. (E.g., Hitler believed he was doing well, that s just now how we saw it )We cannot knowingly pursue evil. o There is equality in all humans. o There is a link between happiness and virtuous behaviour. Aquinas differentiated between natural (cardinal) virtues and revealed virtues. o The cardinal values are derived from Aristotle, and should be deducible by reason alone. They include Prudence Temperance Fortitude Justice The Decalogue o Revealed virtues then expand upon these, with laws and guidelines from God and the scripture. These needed to be revealed since they are not logically deducible. o Revealed virtues include faith, hope and charity. o In this way, God is furthering and developing N.L, he does not contradict it, nor does he define natural law, he merely expands it and endorses it. o Aquinas is therefore suggesting that humans are capable of making moral decisions and rationally arriving at moral law without the need for direct divine intervention, which goes against a lot of the beliefs at the time. Essentially Aquinas is synthesising Aristotle s natural moral law with Christian scripture, seeking a rational basis for Christian morality. In this way we are not dependant on religious authority for our morality, instead we can go with what feels natural, whilst using the scripture for guidance. Scripture & Religious Authority Aristotle s secular ideas of natural reasoning. Natural Moral Law
Precepts Aquinas establishes a key precept, which is self preservation (including beyond the grave). He then establishes various primary precepts which are required to achieve the goal of self preservation o Continuation of the species via reproduction. o Education of children (so improve their ability to reason, and therefore to be moral). o To live in society. o To worship God. These primary precepts do not change, natural law is the same for all men there is a single standard of truth and right for everyone... which is known by everyone (Aquinas). Secondary precepts are also deducible from the primary ones; these can offer more specific guidance in certain situations but are derived only from the primary precepts. Ultimate purpose: Self Preservation Primary Precepts Secondary Precepts o For example, reproduction is a primary precept, the purpose of genitals is reproduction, and therefore masturbation is wrong, since it s a misuse of our God-given reproductive tools. Masturbation is wrong is therefore a secondary precept.
Real & Apparent Goods Humans cannot knowingly pursue evil, anytime they appear to pursue something other than perfection there are merely in search of an apparent good. An apparent good is an error of judgement, we think we are doing good, but we are not. Sin is just falling short of God s intentions. o Example, Hitler believed (arguably) that by ridding his nation, and all other nations of Jews he was doing the world a favour being good. He was mistaken in our eyes, he was doing what he believed was good, rather than deliberately setting out to be evil. o The theologian considers sin principally as an offence against God, whereas the moral philosopher considers it as being contrary to reason (Aquinas) To correctly distinguish between what appears to be good, and what is good we need to use our reason. For Aquinas being good does also require obedience to the scripture, since this reveals some theological values to us. We need to practice being good, it is something we can develop. This will ensure that the virtues become habitual, and we do not develop any bad habits. To act in a good way for the wrong reason is to perform a good exterior act, but a bad interior act. It appears good externally, (for example helping an old lady across the road), but if the intention was wrong (for example to impress someone) then it is a bad exterior act. To be good, an act must be good both interiorly and exteriorly since things should be done out of charity (a revealed virtue). o Augustine There are some things which cannot be justified by any alleged good intention. It is true that Aquinas did appear to hold some absolute moral rules, such as the one that disallowed lying... but this is not what is stressed in the account of natural law... His overall position is that there are what are called 'primary precepts'which are exceedingly general (such as the duty to worship God and to love one's neighbour) and 'secondary precepts'which are more specific, such as the duty to have only one husband or wife. However the secondary precepts all have to be interpreted in the context of the situation, and it is here that the flexibility of natural law arises. (M.J.Longford)
Summary A moral life is to live according to reason, since it is by reason that we can deduce what is moral. Revelation is merely supplementary, since N.M.L is based on reason it is o Universal o Accessible to all o Eternal Natural law is deduced from examining human nature and the ends for which humans are created. What we are designed to do is what is good. Evidence comes from different cultures all over the world having essentially similar fundamental beliefs. Since God created the world and established order and purpose, it must be reflecting his will to do as we were designed to do. Acts are intrinsically good or bad, since morals are derived from design which is unchanging. The consequences are irrelevant, which makes this a deontological theory. The ultimate end is always God, by fulfilling God given purpose we glorify God and thus do good. Human reason is required to examine and follow the sense of purpose that God has given to the world as its creator.
Strengths of the Theory Acts are intrinsically right or wrong regardless of consequences. o Better than predicting results o Acts can be morally assessed prior to actually doing them. Morality is rationally assessed Objective. o Not dependant on emotions, feelings or anything else subjective. o Since its based on reason & nature, its universally available. o It goes beyond one religion or culture (not relativist) since at their hearts all culture share similar beliefs. Establishes simple, concrete rules which can structure society more effectively. o Does not depend on tradition, since its eternal and independent. o Gives us a reason to be moral, as well as everyday guidance on how to be moral. o There s little ambiguity, making it simple to apply.