LOGIC Inductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning Arguments reason from the specific to the general. It is important because this reasoning is based on what we learn from our experiences. Specific observations can be used to formulate general rules of laws about the universe. Specific examples from our own lives lead us to think about how general these instances might be. Inductive reasoning allows general conclusions to be reached as a result of several examples of observation of an occurrence.
Philosophers Aristotle believed that all of us need to learn from our experience, drawing conclusions from the observations of specific objects and the experience of specific events in the world around us. Francis Bacon 16th century philosophers turn to experimentation, which involved the observation and comparison of objects and movements. Putting nature to the test : Experimentation became a powerful tool because it relied careful observation of real events rather then blanket acceptance of traditional ideas or those dictated by authority.
Fallacies Argument that may seem to be correct (sound) but which proves, upon examination, not to be so. Attempt to evoke attitudes that are likely to accept conclusions instead of offering reasons for it. Formal fallacy is when your argument has a logical flaw, breaking some rule of validity with respect to the form of the argument. Informal is when the means of persuasion are flawed or appeal to something other than reason. They are mistakes that arise from carelessness with respect to the relevance of ideas or to the clarity and consistency of language. our
Informal Fallacies Fallacies of Relevance *Rely on an appeal to evidence which is irrelevant or does not logically support the conclusion or point at issue. *At times the premises may seem to be relevant to the conclusion but in fact are not and therefore cannot possibly establish its truth.
Fallacies of Relevance TYPES Appeal to Force: might is right - employs threat, intimidation, pressure, etc., as tools of persuasion. Appeal to Pity: when facts are disregarded and pity is aroused. Appeal to Emotion: Arouse emotion based on almost nothing, often using loaded words. Appeal to Authority: Stating fact based on the opinion or statements of someone a) who is not an authority on the subject b) there is not consensus among the experts in the area c) authorities are not specified d) the authority s views are outdated Appeal to Ignorance: Something is true because it has not been proven false Appeal to Popularity: a.k.a. bandwagon argument. Appealing to what is accepted by the masses.
Fallacies of Relevance TYPES (con t) Irrelevant Conclusion: The premise is not relevant to the conclusion. Red Herring: Changing the issue or topic. Straw Man: Misrepresentation of another s argument. Attack on the Person (ad hominem): Implying a person s argument is flawed based on their personal characteristics or credibility. In other words, attacking the person, not the argument. Guilt by Association: Indirect attack on a person by associating him/her with a discredited group. Faulty/weak analogy: If the analogy is misleading, not representative or just weak. Analogies can also be used is a descriptive to be confused with argumentative.
Informal Fallacies Fallacies of Presumption *Occur when a mistaken argument/statement arises from reliance upon some proposition that is assumed to be true, but it is in fact false, or dubious, or without support. *The proponent's argument is thereby flawed.
Fallacies of Presumption TYPES Accident: Using a general rule in a particular case whose accidental circumstances render the rule inapplicable. Converse Accident/Over Generalizing: Deriving a general rule from a specific case. False Cause: When the two events are given a causal relationship and no causal relationship is or has been appropriately established. Circular Reasoning: When the truth of the conclusion is assumed by the premises, often simply being a restatement of one of the premises. Slippery Slope: Assuming that one step in a direction will continue with many more and result in disastrous