Plato s Ethics
Unity of the virtues Courage = wisdom = piety Knowledge of good and evil = generosity = temperance = prudence
Unity of the virtues? Courage Wisdom Piety Generosity Temperance Prudence
Socratic Definition of Virtue Too narrow? Virtue Too broad? Knowledge of good and evil
Virtue = knowledge Socrates must say this is neither too broad nor too narrow So, you can t be virtuous without knowing good and evil without knowing what to do and what not to do, without knowing right from wrong Also, you can t know good and evil without being virtuous
Puzzle: Weakness of will Knowing good and evil => virtue? Weakness of will (akrasia) = giving in to temptation = knowing the better and doing the worse = knowing what you ought to do and not doing it
Paul on Weakness of Will Paul: I do not understand my own actions. For I do not do what I want, but I do the very thing I hate. I can will what is right, but I cannot do it. For I do not do the good I want, but the evil I do not want is what I do. (Romans 7:15, 18-19, RSV)
Weakness of Will Virtue Weakness of Will: Knowing but not doing Knowing good and evil
Weakness of Will: Example I know I should But I don t exercise want to Knowing the better Doing the worse So, I don t
Socrates: no weakness of will Socrates: weakness of will is impossible. Virtue = knowledge of good and evil But weakness of will involves knowing good and not doing it Socrates would have to say that s virtuous virtue depends only on knowing But plainly it s not: it s not virtuous to do evil
Socrates: no weakness of will Say John displays weakness of will Weakness of will involves knowing good and not doing it He knows he should exercise, but doesn t
Socrates: no weakness of will Virtue = knowing what to do and what not to do He knows what to do But he doesn t do it So, John is virtuous? Socrates holds that weakness of will is impossible; John must not really know what to do
Socrates: No Weakness of Will For Socrates, vice is ignorance, making a mistake No one would willingly choose the lesser good If you choose the worse, it s because you think it s better Long-term vs. short-term goods we re bad at comparing them
Plato
Plato: weakness is possible <==? ==> Consider a case of conflict, in which the person who has willpower resists his desires and the person who is weak of will gives in to them. A person in such a situation seems to be at war with himself.
Plato: weakness is possible Conflict > different parts There must, then, be different parts of the soul (aspects of the personality, parts of the self) that are fighting each other. I should do a I want to do a (or, at least, I want to want to do a) I don t want to do a
Daddy s Soul Doughnut
Plato s Divided Soul Rational element (reason): thinks Appetitive element (desire): wants Spirited element (emotion): feels
Soul as Chariot Of the nature of the soul, though her true form be ever a theme of large and more than mortal discourse, let me speak briefly, and in a figure. And let the figure be composite- a pair of winged horses and a charioteer. Now the winged horses and the charioteers of the gods are all of them noble and of noble descent, but those of other races are mixed; the human charioteer drives his in a pair; and one of them is noble and of noble breed, and the other is ignoble and of ignoble breed; and the driving of them of necessity gives a great deal of trouble to him.
Plato s Soul
Kinds of Conflict Conflict: parts of the soul pull in different directions Rational vs. appetitive element: Reason vs. desire Appetitive vs. spirited element: Desire vs. emotion Rational vs. spirited element: Reason vs. emotion
Kinds of Conflict Reason Desire Emotion
Virtue as Rational Control Resolution: Control by the rational part of the soul. Virtue: Subjecting the horses, especially the ignoble, rebellious horse, to the firm control of the driver. Each must play its proper role. The rational element must dominate the others for a person to be virtuous and happy.
Rationality and Balance
Virtue as Balance Each part of the soul has a role to play, a function Virtue = each part playing its proper role Weakness of will = knowing proper roles, but not being strong enough to force the elements into them
Four Cardinal Virtues For Plato, therefore, there are four cardinal virtues: Wisdom: the excellence of Reason Self-control: the excellence of Desire Courage: the excellence of Emotion Justice: the balance of the other parts
Plato s Definition Too narrow? Virtue Too broad? Parts of soul playing their proper roles
Augustine s Criticisms Plato: conflict > different parts But Reasons can conflict Desires can conflict Emotions can conflict Are there thousands of parts?
Can desires conflict?
Can desires conflict? Good: I want to study, but I also want to help the poor Bad: I want to steal this BMW, but I also want to steal that Porsche
Can feelings conflict?
Can feelings conflict? Catullus: Odi et amo. Quare id faciam, fortasse requiris? Nescio, sed fieri sentio et excrucior. I hate and I love. Why, you may ask? I do not know, but I feel it, and I am in torment.
Can rational conclusions conflict?
Can rational conclusions conflict? This sentence is false If it were true, it would be false, since that s what it says If it were false, then what it says would be true Generally: antinomies (Abelard s Yes and No; Peter of Lombard s Sentences)
Augustine s analysis Weakness of will is conflict between higher and lower-order willings: Willing to do what you don t will to will to do I choose not to exercise: I will that I not exercise But I wish I wanted to exercise: I will that I will that I exercise
Augustine s analysis First-order desires: I want to do A E.g.: I want to study I want to do not-a E.g.: I want to goof off So far, this looks symmetrical
Augustine s analysis First-order desires: I want to do A E.g.: I want to study I want to do not-a E.g.: I want to goof off Second-order desires: I want to want to do A E.g., I want to want to study I don t want to want to do not-a E.g., I don t want to want to goof off
Augustine s analysis First-order desires: I want to do A I want to do not-a E.g.: I want to goof off E.g.: I want to study Second-order desires: I want to want to do A I don t want to want to do not-a E.g., I don t want to want to goof off E.g., I want to want to study Weakness of will = acting in accord with that desire (that you want not to have) Temptation = having a desire you want not to have