Chapter 3 Meaning of Philosophical Foundations and its Relation with Education The foundations of curriculum are the values, traditions, factors, and forces which influence the kind, quantity and quality of experiences the school offers its learners. Curriculum has many influential forces which have engendered a tremendous impact upon the construction of curriculum. In other words, philosophical foundations are those elements of philosophy which have a bearing on choices made in regard to the purposes and contents of the school. It is in the area of curriculum planning that philosophy in education reflects itself. The goals or objectives of any educational effort can only be implemented through a curriculum which translates them into subjects, units of instruction, themes and topics which enter the classroom. They are to be reflected into the reading, the instruction and the activities of the pupils under the guidance and direction of the teachers. For understanding the concept of philosophical foundations, we need to know the relation between philosophy and education. 164
In the earlier chapter we have talked about the meaning of education. Now we will discuss the meaning of philosophy. The word philosophy comes from the Greek word philosophies which is made up of the words phileo meaning love and sophia meaning wisdom. Thus, the literal meaning of philosophy is love of wisdom. The word philosophy refers to a certain way of thinking. It arises out of an attempt to arrive at the solution of a problem; it may be to resolve a confusing situation. Philosophy has been defined by various scholars from various angles. It started from the time when Greek civilization had its full glamour. Philosophy, according to the Greek thinkers, is nothing but an endeavor to bring about a consistent, explanation of the various realities around us. Coleridge defined philosophy as the science of sciences, 1 Casero called it the mother of all arts, and the true medicine of mind 2 Philosophy has also been defined as an attempt to explain and appreciate life as a whole. A philosopher, therefore, has got the chief aim of life and action, taken them as a systematic whole. The outlook of a philosopher is thus, far wide and comprehensive. There is some controversy on the definition of reality and a philosopher is greatly concerned with ultimate reality. The 165
attitude of a philosopher is to take the universe as a systematic whole. Some people think that philosophy is the revelation of some truth through everyday experience. According to Alexander, philosophy means metaphysics. Philosophy, he thinks, is an attempt to study such comprehensive topics like Reality and Universe. His conception of philosophy tries to combine two concepts of metaphysics and criticism. This means that the metaphysical principles are not available in sense-experience. But on the other hand whatever is accepted as principles must constitute the guidelines or criteria in terms of which realities are to be determined. In this sense metaphysical principles help us to find out realities through critical deliberations. According to the revolutionary school of thought, philosophy is neither metaphysics of experiences nor realities beyond senseexperience. The proper function of philosophy is a logical analysis of the proposition of science. Plato states that the knowledge of reality is knowledge of the universal, unchangeable and eternal. In a simpler form we can say that philosophy means mature reflection about any problem in its complete perspective. It is something which comes naturally to every human being who makes use of knowledge and wisdom in deciding upon a course of action in a given situation. 166
Every man who searches into the reason and nature of things, who arrives or tries to arrive at certain general principles and conceptions and who applies them to daily conduct of life, is consciously or unconsciously behaving like a true philosopher. From the above it would appear that there are two broad concepts of philosophy. Philosophy is a science of some kind and it differs from the special science not in kind but in degree. Philosophy is concerned with most general types of problems and also examines them more critically. Philosophy is not merely the intuitive experience of reality, it is an intellectual attempt to interpret and understand the universe. Caird states, There is no province of human experience, there is anything in the whole realm of reality which lies beyond the domain of philosophy 3. It is no wonder then that philosophical thoughts have always influenced education. To the extent an educator strives to attain some goal and bring order and consistency in his attempts, he is acting in accordance with a system of ideas and values which constitute his philosophy. The answer to every educational question 167
is ultimately influenced by the educator s philosophical outlook. Philosophy formulates the aims of life, and education offers suggestions how these aims are to be achieved. Education, in the widest sense of the term, is life itself and in a narrow sense, it denotes the preparation for complete living. Philosophy furnishes a consistent and comprehensive interpretation of life and defines its goals. Therefore the problems of education and philosophy are not only inter-related, but are ultimately identical in nature. Sir John Adams describes education as a dynamic aspect of philosophy 4. According to Fichte, The art of education will never attain complete clearness in itself without philosophy 5 John Dewey defines philosophy as a theory of education in its most general aspects 6. He holds that education is the laboratory of philosophy where the validity of philosophical truths is tested. Indeed, great philosophical truths have obtained permanence, only when they have been disseminated through education and practiced in life. This is why we find that all great philosophers like Socrates, Ramakrishna and others were also great educators. The goal of philosophy is to explain the various mysteries of the universe, the place of man in the universe, his wisdom. And the chief means of philosophy is education, which has 168
been correctly described as the dynamic side of philosophy. Education is a practical activity of philosophical thoughts. The speculative and critical function of philosophy affects not only the direction of moral guidance that the teacher gives but also affects the direction and the emphasis of the curriculum. No practice is good and scientific unless rooted in philosophical thought which gives logic, reason, sequence and system to education Fichte very rightly observes that the art of education will never attain complete clearness without philosophy 7 Gentile states, Education without philosophy would mean a failure to understand the precise nature of education 8. Education is a growing science and its foundations are to be explored for a study of the subject as an inter-disciplinary approach. We need some frame of reference in which education has to fit. There have been various schools of philosophy presenting their views with much optimism. Education is the process of enabling people not merely to live but to live squarely and adequately. There are various facets of education: academic, aesthetic, moral, physical, social and spiritual, on this basis of which theories of education have been formulated and different values have been emphasized. 169
Philosophy assists education in understanding man, his life, his actions, ideals and problems. It assists the educator in formulating beliefs, arguments, assumptions and judgments concerning learning and teaching, subject-matter and skill, desirable ends and appropriate means of schooling. Philosophy means looking at the whole of a question without restriction or simplification, looking at aims and purposes. A philosophy of education, therefore, should take into account the conflicting notions of life and education. It is through philosophy that one s outlook broadens. The modern philosophy in education builds up with the development of critical thinking and reason. It involves a rational outlook which takes into consideration the whole problem before finding its conclusion. Hence, it can be rightly concluded that education cannot be dissociated from philosophy. An analysis of the nature of philosophy and education reveals that philosophy looks at the end and purposes of life in the light of the ultimate reality. It also throws light on the means and methods for the realization of the aims of life. On the other hand education signifies self-development of man in and through his life experience. Every act of living is educative. Therefore, aims or goals of education are determined by, and correlated to, the aims or goals of life. Thus in a real sense, 170
education is a practical philosophy and touches life at many points. Philosophy formulates the ideals of life and education seeks to organize a system providing practical means and methods for the proper guidance of the educands. The intimate relationship between philosophy and education will be quite clear, if we consider how different schools of philosophical thoughts differently affect diverse educational issues. Broadly speaking the major schools of philosophy are three in number; - Idealistic - Naturalistic - Pragmatistic We are here to discuss the philosophical foundations of curriculum at primary stage of education. But earlier we have already discussed that education has various indispensable factors and curriculum is one of them. The need of philosophy of education is felt very seriously in the area of curriculum planning. The philosophical approach to life is the guiding factor in respect of the choice of studies to be included in the curriculum. So it will be better if we discuss the foundation on the overall field of education giving special emphasis on curriculum. 171
3.1 Idealism Idealism is a school of philosophy is represented as the most influential and dominating school in the field of education. It is derived from Plato s metaphysical doctrine that reality consists in ideas and those ideas or whole truths are universal in character. Idealistic philosophy takes many and varied forms. It has influenced human life and education, in some form or other, down the ages. Idealism contends that the material universe, known to sciences, is an incomplete expression of reality and that it requires, to complement it, a higher type of reality, a spiritual universe. It also emphasizes the distinctiveness of human nature and human power which find expression in the form of intellectual culture, art, morality and religion. The nature of idealism is expressed in the following fundamental propositions: i) True reality is spiritual or thought. ii) Nothing exists except what exists in the Absolute Mind, of which our finite minds are parts. iii) What the mind projects into the world is the only reality. iv) Ideas and purposes are the realities of existence. 172
v) Knowledge and values are universal and eternal. Thus the idealists believe that the true or the good is universal and essentially mental or spiritual in character. We are here to discuss how much influence has idealism exerted upon education. Since our present concern is with education, so we should broadly divide idealism in education under two major heads: - Religious Idealism - Cultural Idealism Religious idealism is the oldest from of this philosophy. Religious idealism regarded religion as the very foundation of all life activities of man, including his education and culture. It has cast its shadows in different times. The Brahmanic system of education in ancient India stands on the religious philosophy which used to determine the way of living and achieving the goal leading to the realization of the inner self. Thus educational aim under the influence of this Absolute Idealism is directed towards the development of the whole man, self-fulfillment and the attainment of knowledge. In 173
modern India also we find the same expression of the thought in the ideas of Swami Vivekananda. Buddhistic system of education like the Brahmanistic system was also closely related to religion. The main aim of life and education was at that time, directed towards the attainment of ways which would give salvation or mukti for this earthly attachment. Cultural Idealism emphasizes on human culture as the highest manifestation of the creative genius of human personality. Cultural idealism owes its origin to Plato, the great Greek philosophereducator. It has great impact upon the concept of human experience and its interaction with nature and environment. Now we will discuss the various aspects of education which are being influenced by idealistic philosophy. The idealistic school in education is represented by Plato, Commenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel and eastern thinkers like Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo and others Educational aims, according to idealism, should be directed towards the attainment of complete manhood. Education as an unending process should aim at recognizing the immense 174
potentialities of man, enabling each one to be his highest, truest self. Therefore self-realization is the chief aim of education according to the idealists. The purpose of education under idealism is to transmit the cultural heritage which reflects the truth as it has been ascertained throughout the ages. Naturally, the curriculum of the school under idealism revolves round that are called worthy ideas. Worthy ideas are drawn from the past and are recorded in books with emphasis on history and literature as the sources of ideas. Special attention is paid to the masterpieces that record various aspects of humanity. Idealism presents considerable selection of materials to children in order to give them the best of their culture. The idealist s approach to the problem of curriculum is from the domain of ideas and ideals. Idealists attach importance to the experience of human race as a whole. Accordingly, the curriculum includes the sciences and the humanities. Idealists, however, attach greater importance to the study of humanities than to positive science. Science which relates human experiences regarding physical environment and the study of other branches of human life should also be included in school curriculum. Anyway, all the activities which are the grand expressions of human spirit are prescribed as school curricula. Therefore, it is very clear that the dependence of education on philosophy is even better marked in the field of curriculum 175
construction. Plato believed that the highest ideal of life was the attainment of the highest good or God and for this he has suggested that the curriculum should aim at the inculcation of the three spiritual values, i.e. Truth, Beauty and Goodness. These three values determine three types of activities; intellectual, aesthetic and moral. Subjects that represent these activities are as follows. Language, literature, mathematics; science, history and geography represent intellectual activities. Aesthetic activities are represented by art and poetry. Religion, ethics and metaphysics represent moral activities. According to Nunn, the schools should give place to those human activities that are of greatest and most permanent significance in the wider world, the grandest expressions of the human spirit 9 Thus Nunn endorses the idealist standpoint as regards the curriculum. Idealists approach the framing of the curriculum from the domain of ideas and ideals. i) The curriculum should represent the experience of the human race as a whole, relating to the physical and the social environment; the sciences and the humanities will thus be included. 176
ii) Plato spoke of spiritual values which enable the pupil to pursue the good, the true and the beautiful. iii) Physical education, which Plato called Gymnastic, will be included in the curriculum. Athletics, gymnastics, health and hygiene will be taught along with intellectual, artistic and spiritual pursuits in the school. Ross summarizes from Rusk a scheme for a complete and generous education. This is demonstrated in the following table. Education Physical Activities Spiritual Activities Care of body Skill Intellectual Moral Aesthetic Religious 177
Physical activities include the care of the health and fitness of the body and the bodily skills are represented by such subjects as gymnastics and athletics. Spiritual activities include subjects like history, geography, fine arts, morality, language, ethics, etc. It must be kept in mind that physical and spiritual activities are not entirely separate. Our discussion will remain incomplete if we not draw our attention to the contributions of Vivekananda. Vivekananda would seem to be committed to religious idealism arising out of ancient Indian life and the educational heritage rooted in it. He states that knowledge is inherent in man, no knowledge comes from outside, it is all inside 10. According to him, everyman is born with a light divine within and the task of education is to discover and uncover the powers that are already in man. Education should provide the child ample scope for his free growth according to his nature. The child should develop positive ideas, deep self confidence and the spirit of independence. As Vivekananda urges, We want that education by which character is found, strength of mind is increased, the intellect 178
is expanded and by which one can stand on one s feet. 11 In order to bring about regeneration in Indian life Vivekananda stressed on mass education. Education must not remain a closed preserve for the privileged few of the society. It must reach everyone irrespective of class, caste, sex, age and all other differences. Along with Sanskrit language and literature, he gave special emphasis on mother tongue to be included in the curriculum. Apart from religion subjects like modern sciences, geography, history etc. are to be included in the curriculum. He placed emphasis on the inclusion of subjects on the cultural heritage of India in the school curriculum. Another great exponent of this school (idealism) is Sri Aurobindo. According to Aurobindo there are four vehicles of learning. They are vital, physical, and mental and psychic; in a combined manner, these cultivate power, beauty, knowledge and love, Sri Aurobindo s philosophy of education gave much emphasis on the psychic aspect of man. Education is deemed to be an instrument of awakening of man as a spiritual being. Mind, being the principal instrument of education, must help cultivation of mental powers and process. His theory of education is guided by the principles of Yoga. Sri Aurobindo draws distinction between 179
intellectual aspect of education, physical training and edification of character. In this opinion these three aspects together constitute education. Sri Aurobindo enumerated three principles of teaching. The first principle of true teaching is that nothing can be taught. The teacher is not an instructor or task master; he is a helper and guide. The second principle is that the mind has to be consulted in its growth. The third principle of teaching is to work from the near to the far, from the known to the unknown. Man s nature is molded by his soul s past, his heredity and his environment. The past is the foundation, the present is the material and future is the aim. Sri Aurobindo suggests perfect liberty for the child. Like all other areas of human life Sri Aurobindo has made valuable contribution to the field of 180
curriculum also. He includes specific areas of studies in the curriculum Psychic and spiritual studies Academic subjects Physical and health education Cultural activities like art, music, drama Vocational training Education for international understanding. From the above, it should be clear that idealistic thinkers, particularly, idealistic educators, maintain that school should be an ideally selected social environment where students will be provided with all the opportunities for free expression of latent powers and enhancement of their abilities. Idealistic approach to curriculum construction is also very vital for all stages of education. It includes all the activities which are the grand expressions of human spirit. At present we are facing various forms of problems within our society. In this era of erosion of values in every sphere, idealism in education should be the torch-bearer before the rising generation for enabling them to keep pace with the growing demands of the age. 181
3.2 Naturalism Naturalism may be called one of the oldest philosophies in the western world. Reality according to this philosophy is represented by nature alone. Nothing exists beyond or rather than nature. Naturalism regards man solely as a part of nature at large, and considers education from this point of view. Accordingly, naturalism holds that the root of education lies in the natural potentials of human beings. Therefore naturalism regards education as a process of self - expression and spontaneous self-development without any sort of interference from outside. Naturalism as a philosophy expresses itself, according to various thinkers, in three distinct forms: Physical Naturalists These philosophers hold that human life is governed entirely by physical laws. Rousseau believed in naturalism of the physical type. Mechanical Naturalists According to these thinkers, man is merely a machine. According to this group of thinkers man should be taught to adjust mechanically with the material environment. Thus materialistic naturalism starts with the 182
phenomenal nature and tries to fit man who is nothing more than a highly complicated psychochemical machine. Biological Naturalists According to these thinkers man has evolved to his present the lower forms of life. This is the Darwinian concept of man According to Herbert Spencer; we came to be what we are now, by a process of growth and development. Biological naturalism is also applied to education. It is not directly connected with systems of training that are not dependent on schools and books but on the actual manipulation of the life of the educand. It reacts against any artificial system imposed upon him. It aims at creating conditions that will foster free spontaneous self-expression and natural self-development. Naturalism as a philosophical doctrine tremendously influenced modern educational practice. According to this school of philosophy education is the process of self development into an enjoyable, rational, harmoniously balanced, useful and natural life. Thus the stress on child s nature is equivalent to the emphasis on his natural development. Education is merely the fostering of natural development and it taxes place when the needs, abilities, interests of 183
the child are allowed to develop freely with minimum interference. Considered from this point of view, the educator is only a guide. All this may be summed up by the term paidocentricism which is essentially naturalistic. Another feature of naturalistic education is that it is based on psychology. The desire to know child-nature and its development has led to the direct study of the child himself. Psychology may not set goal for education but it can ascertain whether a set goal is realizable or not. It has greatly influenced the organizational problems of curriculum construction, of grading and arranging educational materials to balance with the child s developing interests and abilities. This school of philosophy stresses upon individual differences and hence they are not in favor of formulating any particular curricular pattern. Every child will choose his curricula from the environment in accordance with his basic nature and capacity. Herbert Spencer gave emphasis on scientific studies as those are directly related with the life-experiences of children, and the knowledge of those studies will be required by them for the better adjustment with the living conditions. So the naturalists generally prescribe nature study, agriculture, gardening and other such activity oriented curricula for growing children. Curriculum, according to 184
naturalists, is the sum total of the activities and experiences of the learner. Curricula must be activity centered, flexible and integrated. Thus naturalism in both forms, that is, biological naturalism and scientific naturalism, lays stress on human being with all his innate tendencies and capacities in all aspects physical, mental and social. All these areas are given importance because according to naturalism education enables an individual to live in accordance with his psycho-physical nature, to bring out and nourish the powers with an objective of attaining the total development. Accordingly, curriculum should have linkage with the living experience and activities of the learners. So emphasis has been laid on activities, scientific studies and nature study etc. Naturalism has been defined by Joyce as a system whose salient characteristic is the exclusion of whatever is spiritual, or indeed whatever is transcendental of experience from our philosophy of nature and man 12 James Ward holds that naturalism is the doctrine that separates nature from God, subordinates spirit to matter, and sets up unchangeable laws as supreme 13 Rousseau has been the outstanding exponent of naturalism in education. Naturalism believes in negative education. Therefore, the child is not to be taught the traditional subjects. The curriculum is conceived as a 185
natural phenomenon presented in the natural order before the child. The primary place is given to the budding activities and interests of the child s own nature. The curriculum is to unfold the natural powers to the child in order to meet his natural needs. Hence the curriculum will include those activities which spring naturally from the needs of the child s life. Naturalism believes in the theory of self-teaching as Rousseau says, By relieving school children of their course books I take away the chief cause of their misery 14. Naturalists stress the importance of child study. Pestalozzi, Froebel, Stanley Hall, Montessori, Tagore, Piaget and others have emphasized on the child s dynamic nature which grows and develops in distinct stages, each stage having its own characteristic. Naturalism ushered in the psychological movement and forms the basis for child-centered education stressing freedom, initiative, spontaneity and self-expression. Along with this, each child s individuality should be recognized, keeping in mind that certain types of behaviour will occur regardless of intervention. So it can be rightly said that naturalism as a philosophical doctrine has a tremendous influence upon modern education. It gives constant emphasis on the child s nature and urges that 186
education is to be based on that nature. The stress on child s nature is equivalent to the emphasis on his natural development. As already said, education is merely the fostering of natural development and it takes place when the needs, abilities, interests of the child are allowed to develop freely with minimum interference. Considered from this point of view, the curriculum is only a broad outlook of materials which are open to all individuals and they are equally free to choose according to their needs. One of the greatest exponents of naturalism is Rousseau, whose contribution in education touches the life of every child in the modern days also. Rousseau was greatly influenced by three sources 1. Education of nature. 2. Education given by men. 3. Education from circumstances. Rousseau has divided education into four stages. In the first stage he recommends purely physical education. He recommends running, jumping and playing with simple objects of nature such as branches 187
with fruits and flowers. The second stage of childhood (five to twelve) is the most crucial period of human life Organs are to be developed freely and senses should be given ample exercise. There should be no verbal lessons. No moral education or positive education is to be given. Education at this stage is non-intellectual and non-social and therefore it is called negative education. Adolescence (twelve to fifteen) is the third stage. Rousseau recommends that child is to be taught physical science, language, mathematics, manual work, social relation, trade, music and drawing. The knowledge of these subjects is to be acquired through child s own experiences. The fourth stage is the youth. Regarding the education at this stage, he writes that along with physical development and mental development an individual also needs to be social. In the earlier stages, the boy was an individual working for self-perfection and self-development. Now he has to be social and adapt himself to the conduct and interest of others. The study of society, politics, economics, history and religion are the appropriate studies for the youth to understand complex social relationships. According to him, Emile his imaginary boy must be given moral education about his relations with his fellow men. Rousseau recommends that moral education should be given through activities and occupations and not through mere lectures on ethics. History will 188
be utilized as a means of moral instruction. Travel is recommended for knowing the world and the institutions of the neighboring countries. The chief characteristics of his curriculum are: 1. It is based on the nature of the child, his interests, etc. 2. It lays stress on subjects that are helpful in self-preservation. 3. It emphasizes on basic sciences. 4. It also emphasizes physical and health education. Froebel, the German educator, also holds that child expresses the best when he is free in the nature. So education to Froebel is a self-developmental process in and through self-activity. Hence curriculum follows the principle of centering round the individual child, and his characteristic activity and interests. According to him mother tongue should be the basis of all instruction. Mathematics occupies an important place because the rational faculty is developed through mathematics. Nature-study is given an important place. Curriculum should include drawing, as Froebel thinks that in this process of drawing the child expands his mental horizon and reveals his innate nature. Story-telling, singing, dancing, nursery rhymes get important places in the curriculum. Therefore Froebel has brought a new change in the field of education. Froebel invites us to live for our 189
children and love them. Children are no more passive learners. He has helped to make the society conscious of education for young children. He fully recognizes the importance of the education in the early years. Froebel believes that play is the highest phase of selfdevelopment. He introduces play way in the activities. Froebel puts emphasis on the need for the study of the nature of the child, his instincts and impulses. Froebel did introduce gifts for the training of the senses of children. With the help of these gifts he wanted to give the idea of shape, form, colour, size and number. In every modern school those activities are introduced that help in the training of senses. Froebel is the first educator to make self-activity as the basis of education. It is for his contribution that the present school has become a place of activity and joy for children. Various types of activities will help the children to satisfy their instincts of construction, manipulation, curiosity and acquisition. Froebel s principles and ideas are most remarkably evident in the educational tendencies of the modern times. The Kindergarten as his original creation did not end with him but spread as an institution all over the world. His more significant contributions in the field of modern education may be attributed to his concepts of play, self-activity, creativity and nature study and their implications in the re-orientation of modern education. 190
Another great exponent of naturalism is Herbert Spencer. He initiated a powerful educational reform movement in the form of a vigorous protest against the traditional classical education. Spencer specifically declared that preparation for complete living should be the purpose of education. Spencer developed a new curriculum design of his own in which the subjects were categorized on a priority order of their respective worth. Spencer gave first preference to knowledge which leads directly to self- preservation. The subjects coming within this category are physiology, hygiene, physics and chemistry. They are to be treated as subjects of first importance. Next comes knowledge which leads indirectly to self preservation. This includes the sciences and arts which help securing food, clothing and shelter. Third, in order to priority, comes knowledge that administers to the rearing of offspring s. Both the parent and the teacher must learn how to develop the child properly. Fourth comes the knowledge of social and political life which will make one an intelligent neighbor and citizen. Last in the priority order, comes the knowledge of literature, art, aesthetic and languages which comprise the leisure part of life. He advocated for a practical utilitarian approach in education in place of the traditional classical approach. Spencer interpreted education as a process of one s intellectual, 191
moral and physical development. According to Spencer true concrete knowledge could be acquired through self-effort. Education must be based on experienced facts and acquired through observation. Education to the child should be a joyous endeavor and an interesting venture. Hence education should make room for rhymes, fairy tales and play. Spenser developed certain maxims of method which comprise proceeding 1. from the simple to the complex; 2. from the inductive to deductive; 3. from the concrete to the abstract; 4. from the empirical to the rational and 5. Self development as the process of education. Therefore, we can say that Herbert Spencer, the naturalist, rests upon the idea that man has to prepare for the future adjustment with the social environment. For this purpose an individual requires to have scientific knowledge and vocation oriented education. 192
Madam Maria Montessori s contribution in the field education is remarkable, specially, for young one s her innovative ideas are still applied successfully in the modern schools. She has revolutionized the whole field of educational practice when she evolved a new method based upon the child s actual living conditions and his physical and mental capacities. Maria Montessori, in her approach to childhood, bases her method of education on naturalism. She believes that the child is a body which grows and a soul which develops. The teacher should care for the child in a manner so that the natural growth is guided in the process of unfolding itself. She holds that freedom is the right of every child and every human being and advocates the spontaneous development of the child through complete liberty. The child s individuality must not be crushed through collective handling. The teacher must know each child individually, not only his mental development, but the child s physical development as well. The teacher should not interfere with or force the child to learn in a particular way or at a certain rate. Each child should progress at his own rate and gain self-education through the apparatus provided for the individual child. The senses of touch, hearing, taste and smell are developed through the apparatus provided for the individual child. She has provided practical exercises in her school which enable children to learn good habits of 193
cleanliness and order. The students learn the lesson of dignity of labor and self help by attending to their needs themselves. There are three types of exercises that are provided in the children s school. 1. Exercise in practical life. 2. Sense training exercise. 3. Didactic exercise for teaching languages and arithmetic. It should be clear that as a naturalist Maria Montessori vouches fullest freedom to the child. Even interference of the teacher was highly criticized. To her education does never mean an imposition of something on children, nor does this means the acquisition of some information from outside. Rather, education is the active help given to the normal expansion of the life of a child. She believes that it is through freedom and in an atmosphere of love, sympathy and care that a child can develop his powers and possibilities. All these concepts are clear in her curriculum pattern also. Curriculum in this system of education naturally includes the activities concerned with daily lives of the children. Activity is the central point in this system of education. Besides activities, curricula include language, arithmetic, geometry, writing, etc. Writing, according to Montessori, should precede reading. Reading to be learnt requires much longer time, 194
patience and mental preparation, whereas writing can be easily taught to the children with the help of Touch Method. Rabindranath Tagore s school in Shantiniketan upholds in many respects the chief principles of naturalism. As a naturalist philosopher, Tagore gave practical shape to his ideology. Tagore was a realist. He also deserves credit for having attempted for the revival of ancient Indian ideals of education in the modern times. He pointed out the great significance of the school atmosphere in the life of children. The cultural atmosphere keeps the mind sensitive to rich racial inheritance, glorious traditions and rich culture. Nature forms the very core of Rabindranath s educational concept. True education is one that communicates freely with the life of nature. The child learns and develops through it with a healthy body and mind Nature nurses the child like a mother and develops him as a teacher. The sight, sounds, music and rhythm in the life of nature stimulate and inspire him every moment of his life. Nature s education forms the best part of education free and spontaneous education according to the child s nature. The child should have a free access to the world of experiences, knowledge and understanding of his environmental world and its laws. The principle of joy and creativity is a must for ideal education. Creativity is a mixture of freedom and discipline. 195
According to Tagore, a child s potentialities and powers find their best expression through creative outlets. Tagore is the first great educator to introduce open-air school in the lap of nature in such a large way. He developed a curriculum without a set frame. It was a curriculum evolving out of the child s life itself, the life that the child lives is the curriculum. Continuous communication of the child with his life outside, all the activities he participated in, and the ever growing world of relation and experiences gained thereby, constituted his knowledge and education. Theoretical study just supplemented it. Open air free movements, games and sports, dance and music observation and reflection, self-activity and independence all came within its scope. Nature study and appreciation of the beauties of life and nature formed the core of this curriculum. It is a truly flexible developing curriculum. It is a totally life-centered curriculum. Such a curriculum is a constant source of joy and inspiration for the child. From the above, it transpires that Tagore s curriculum is fully nature-oriented and largely based on the philosophy of naturalism. Naturalism has brought to the forefront the importance and recognition of the child in the educative process. It advocates that education should be a pleasurable activity for children. The child s 196
interest in and readiness to learn a topic should be assigned due importance. Naturalism stresses that; education should engage the spontaneous self-activity of the child. Naturalism in education draws our attention to the aesthetic aspect of surroundings. This also implies that schools should be located in natural surroundings. Thus education can be imparted in the open. Similarly the curriculum also shows the same picture. (i) It is based on the nature of the child, his interest, etc. (ii) It lays stress on subjects that are helpful in selfpreservation. (iii) (iv) It gives emphasis on basic sciences. It also emphasizes on physical and health education. 197
3.3 Pragmatism Pragmatism is a middle way between naturalism and idealism. According to the pragmatic philosophy, whatever fulfils one s purposes and develops his life is true. And Pragmatism does not accept any absolute value. Pragmatism protests against the formality in instruction and considers learning as an active process rather than a passive acceptance of facts. Historically, the pragmatic approach can be traced to Protagorous, a Sophist philosopher of ancient Greece who said, Man is the measure of all things 15. He critically analyzed idealism and redefined truth and knowledge in terms of experience and their practical consequences. The terms pragmatism derives its origin from a Greek word meaning to do, to make or to accomplish. Action gets priority over thought. Idea is dueto-action, nothing more. Everything is tested on the touch-stone of experience. Will Durant sums up pragmatism as the doctrine that truth is the practical efficacy of an idea 16 According to him, pragmatism is not a philosophy but a method the method of experimentation. Here nothing is fixed in advance, everything is changing. Similarly values are instrumental only. They are used as means to attain certain ends. There are no final and fixed values. They are evolved and are not true for all times and for all situations. 198
Pragmatism has cast its tremendous influence upon modern education, comprising child-centralism in education, the recognition of the importance of vocational and scientific-cum-technological studies in education together with the study of human society. The modernization of educational curricula and activity method are some of the contributions of pragmatism. The curricular pattern follows from the view that nothing is constant and that in his early years of development the child is the measure of all things educational. Great philosophers like Herbert Spencer, John Dewey attached importance to the utilitarian aspect of studies. So in pragmatism curricula include the first essentials of individual life and also the constituents of social life which occupy no less an important place in the pragmatic scheme of education. As pragmatist places importance upon activity, utility, practicability and change, so traditional division of curriculum into subjects of instruction is negated here and in its place comes the principle of integration. In pragmatic thinking curriculum must have a blend between theory and practice, knowledge and skill, living experience and learning process. Knowledge is an aid to this adjust mental process. Curriculum is to centre round the individual s lifeexperiences and the physical and socio-cultural environment. 199
Through the unending process of reconstruction of experiences an individual develops his powers and participates in the social process which is synonymous with educational process. Consequently, language, literature, philosophy, history, geography, mathematics, sciences, vocational studies and other recreational subjects having bearing upon individual and social life have occupied important place in curriculum. Pragmatism gives us several criteria for curriculum construction. Utility is the first criterion for this purpose. This school must provide learning and experiences that are useful to the child; hence the curriculum is to include subjects that will impart knowledge and various types of skills which the child needs in his present as well as future life. Languages, physical education, social studies, mathematics, home economics for girls, agricultural science for boys, as well as many useful crafts and skills are included in the curriculum. The utility criterion implies direct education and training for a vocation, as the pupil advances to the higher stages, in the school. 200
The curriculum is to be governed by the child s natural interests during the successive stages of his development. In the elementary school, for example, the child is interested in communication, inquiry, construction and artistic expression. Hence, the curriculum at the elementary level will include such tools of knowledge as listening, speaking, reading, writing, number, nature study, arts and crafts. The curriculum in pragmatic practices is based on the child s occupation and activities as well as his own experiences. Learning is not merely book learning, it involving doing; it is an active process, not a passive assimilation of facts. Discussion, questioning, inquiry, touching and handling of objects, tools and making things are characteristic of learning situations. Each and every learning has a practical aspect which must be selected and initiated by the child or a group of children. The activities may be in the classroom, in the school, or even going out into the community. If these activities are similar to the activities of the community of which the school is a part, they will develop moral virtues, result in attitudes of initiative of independence and will give training in citizenship, and promote selfdiscipline. 201
The principle of integration and correlated activities should guide in curriculum construction. This principle assumes the unity of knowledge and skill. Such integration is not possible if the curriculum is divided into independent and separate subjects. The subjects should be integrated and presented as modes of activity which are purposive and connected by a common theme. Compartmentalized subject matter, taught by different teachers, at different times, during specified subject periods should be substituted by learning activity period in which knowledge is imbibed as a whole. The different aspects of knowledge are examined, studied and learnt in relation to a specified need or activity in which the child becomes interested. Curriculum, therefore, consists of activities but all are child centered activities. John Dewey is the chief exponent of the pragmatic philosophy. Dewey s programme has been variously called Experimentalism, Functionalism, Instrumentalism, Operationalism, Practicalism and above all Pragmatism 17 All these indicate his emphasis on the dynamic and ever-charging character of life. Dewey tests every hypothesis or belief or principle by the way it works or by its consequences. He does not believe in the existence of any absolute 202
values or ultimate moral principles which are static and unemployable. He said that there are no fixed beliefs. He also insists that the intellect is subordinate to practical ends. Utility is the touchstone of every value. Pragmatism teaches that whatever is useful or works in a practical situation is true. Truth thus becomes not a fixed eternal thing but something that is subject to change. Dewey also attaches great importance to child and child centered-education. He analyses the interests of the child into four groups. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Interest in conversation or communication. Interest in enquiry, or finding out things. Interest in making things or construction. Interest in artistic expression. Thus the different activities of the real life will determine the contents of the curriculum. Dewey s contribution in the field of curriculum is also remarkable in the modern system of education. In view of the task of 203
educating so many children at so many educational levels with such a variety of abilities, needs and goals require a completely different approach. With this increase in a diversified school population, Dewey advocates that broader curricular programmes are needed and emphasis should be placed on the total development of the person as being equally important as the intellectual and the academic. Such a curriculum acknowledges that the social responsibilities of education must present situations where problems are relevant to the problems of living together, and where observation and information are calculated to develop social insight and interest. According to Dewey social life cannot be cut into pieces of knowledge. Departmentalization of the curriculum and the systematic succession of studies have to be replaced by elastic programmes of activities. The subject-matter of geography, arithmetic and grammar should come out of school situation in answer to social needs. Dewey notes that the child s interests are concrete and human. When he first comes to school, he is eager for activities and experiences of all sorts. A child likes to manipulate things, to build and construct. So the curriculum should consist of real and concrete life activities that are carried on in the outer world and these should require co-operative mutual efforts. To act in such a way as to produce desired result always involves difficulties and 204
problems. To get over them, the children must exercise their intellectual abilities. Thus not only will they acquire skills and habits of doing things but also necessary ideas and training of their own mental powers. They will also acquire a social sense of their own powers and of the materials and appliances used. The greatest contribution of Dewey is his democratic philosophy of education. Here both individual and social factors are emphasized and harmonized. It has been interpreted as the process of conforming the individual to the democratic social standard in such a way that his inherent capacities are developed. It is he who has drawn the attention of all educators to the socialization of education through the personal social experiences to be provided in schools. He has rendered a great service in trying to bridge the gulf between life and school, between theory and practice, between interest and effort. He has saved the children from the tyranny of purely abstract studies unrelated to their lives. Instead of these, they are given productive activities in which they are interested by nature. The project method is the direct outcome of his teachings. Activity curriculum, experience curriculum are the natural developments of his philosophy of education. Dewey s social theory of education, 205