Oter Books by Carles Ryrie Cristian Living Balancing te Cristian Life. Cicago: Moody Publisers, 1994. Bible Answers to Contemporary Issues. Cicago: Moody Publisers, 1991. Object Lessons: 100 Lessons from Everyday Life. Cicago: Moody Bible Institute, 1991. Cristian Teology and Biblical Studies Te Acts of te Apostles. Cicago: Moody Publisers, 1961. Basic Teology: A Popular Systematic Guide to Understanding Biblical Trut. Cicago: Moody Publisers, 1999. First & Second Tessalonians. Cicago: Moody Publisers, 2001. Te Holy Spirit. Cicago: Moody Publisers, 1997. Let It Go Among Our People: An Illustrated History of te Englis Bible from Jon Wyclif to te King James Version (wit David Price). Cambridge, England: Lutterwort Press, 2004. Revelation. Cicago: Moody Publisers, 1996. Te Ryrie Study Bible. Cicago: Moody Publisers, 1978 94. Ryrie s Practical Guide to Communicating Bible Doctrine. Nasville: B&H, 2005. So Great Salvation: Wat It Means to Believe in Jesus Crist. Weaton, IL: Victor Books, 1997. Escatology Te Basis of Premillennial Fait. Neptune, NJ: Loizeaux Bros., 1981. Come Quickly, Lord Jesus: Wat You Need to Know about te Rapture. Eugene, OR: Harvest House Publisers, 1996. Dispensationalism. Cicago: Moody Publisers, 2007. In te Twinkling of an Eye. Eugene, OR: Harvest House Publisers, 1996. Transformed by His Glory. Weaton, IL: Victor Books, 1990.
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH Second Edition Carles Caldwell Ryrie 1958, 2011 All rigts reserved. ISBN: 978-1-4336-7380-1 Publised by B&H Publising Group Nasville, Tennessee (Moody Publisers Edition, 1970) Dewey Decimal Classification: 305.42 Subject Heading: WOMEN IN THE CHURCH Scripture passages are taken from te Holy Bible, autorized King James version. Printed in te United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 15 14 13 12 11 VP
CONTENTS Foreword by Doroty Patterson Preface xi xv Capter 1. BACKGROUNDS 1 Te status of women in ancient Greece 2 Te status of women in ancient Rome 8 Te status of women in Judaism 12 Te status of women in private life 13 Te status of women in public life 17 Part I THE EFFECT OF THE LIFE OF OUR LORD ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN Capter 2. THE MOTHER OF OUR LORD 29 Events related to te birt of Jesus 29 Mary s public encounters wit Jesus 33 Mary s position and significance 35 v
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH Capter 3. THE ATTITUDE OF JESUS TOWARD WOMEN 41 Appreciation of women s spiritual capability 42 Appreciation of women s intellectual capability 43 Appreciation of women s ability to serve 47 Capter 4. WOMEN MINISTERING TO JESUS 55 Capter 5. JESUS TEACHING ON DIVORCE 65 Te istorical situation 66 Te teacing of Jesus 67 Te problem in Mattew s Gospel 70 Explanation based on te autority of te curc 70 Explanation based on te evidence of source criticism 71 Explanation based on te autority of inspiration 74 Conclusions 78 Part II THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE LIFE OF THE CHURCH DURING THE APOSTOLIC AGE Capter 6. WOMEN AND THE FOUNDING OF THE CHURCH 85 vi
Contents Capter 7. THE DOMESTIC STATUS OF WOMEN 95 Marriage, celibacy, and related matters 96 Husband-wife relationsip 106 Capter 8. THE PLACE OF WOMEN IN CHURCH LIFE 113 Women in public worsip 116 Te question of subordination 117 Te question of silence 120 Widows 130 Deaconesses 137 Part III THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN THE LIFE OF THE CHURCH DURING THE SECOND AND THIRD CENTURIES Capter 9. THE AGE OF THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS AND APOLOGISTS 155 Te apostolic faters 155 Te apologists 161 Te contrast between Cristian women and eaten women 162 Te teacing concerning marriage 163 Non-Cristian literature 164 vii
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH Capter 10. THE ALEXANDRIAN FATHERS 169 Clement s views on te status of women 171 Relation of female to male 172 Te status of women as seen in te marriage relationsip 174 Te status of women in curc relationsips 176 Origen s views on te status of women 178 Capter 11. THE AFRICAN FATHERS 183 Tertullian s life and times 183 Tertullian s views on te status of women 187 Relation of man and woman 187 Marriage and celibacy 189 Virgins 190 Widows 192 Te public ministry of women 194 Cyprian s life and times 197 Cyprian s views on te status of women 198 Te public ministry of women 198 Widows 199 Virgins 199 Capter 12. THE THIRD-CENTURY CHURCH ORDERS 205 Te Apostolic Tradition 207 Te Apostolic Curc Order 211 Te Syrian Didascalia 213 Conclusions 219 viii
Contents Capter 13. CONCLUSIONS 225 SUBJECT INDEX 241 SCRIPTURE INDEX 247 ix
FOREWORD For more tan alf a century I ave been intrigued by te legendary teologian Carles Caldwell Ryrie. As a young adult, I was drawn to is writings because of is clarity and dept. Ryrie as always wielded is pen in an incisive but winsome way, drawing is readers into a private classroom full of biblical knowledge to be unleased and pilosopical conundrums to be considered. He is one of te few teologians wo is equally at ome and adept at explaining te breadt of teological issues wile pursuing a dept of understanding tat appeals bot to te young novice wo is only beginning er or is spiritual journey and to te seasoned scolar wo still looks for someting new under te sun! Ryrie s Basic Teology remains my standard text in te courses I teac on understanding te foundational underpinnings of Scripture and fait, and te volume also as a place in te resources I keep close to my desk for ready reference to bring clarity to a student question or to my own wrestlings wit ow best to frame a discussion on issues of teological debate. xi
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH Of course, te Ryrie Study Bible was te forerunner in wat as been a steady stream of study tools tat surround te text of Scripture wit brief annotations and explanations a desk volume for bot pastors and laity wo seek better understanding of te truts of Scripture. His works ave been translated into 20 languages and are scattered around te world in teological training centers as well as in te ands of tose wo struggle to understand God s Word witout te benefit of large personal teological libraries or formal training. Wit tis background in mind, let me draw your attention to te volume tat as meant te most to me not only in enligtening me on te difficult questions burning in my own eart but te most divisive issue tat as come to te forefront of Cristendom in te decades completing te last century and moving into te twenty-first century in wic we now live and work. Tat question is tis: Wat can a woman do in te curc of God? Are women needed or wanted in te service of Crist and His kingdom? Again, Ryrie finds imself in te role of a propetic scolar engaging in cutting-edge debate over a question tat really ad not been asked wen e first penned tis work as is doctoral dissertation in te mid-twentiet century, nor was te issue really of importance wen Moody Publisers first issued is monograp on te subject. Yet te volume did catc my eye as I was moving toward te university and trying to determine my own course of study. Not only did xii
Foreword I read and meditate upon every word of te volume in its first edition a well-worn copy I still ceris until today, but also I ave returned again and again to pour over its pages and find answers to my own questions and elp for my personal struggles as well as being rewarded wit answers for questions asked of me weter on te speaking circuit for women s events or in te teological classroom, were I ave taugt women for more tan tree decades. Wat is te uniqueness of tis volume as one of scores of treatises written on te subject? Certainly Ryrie would ave been labeled a well-reasoned complementarian before tat term ever entered te marketplace of ideas, and yet tis volume is not written as an apologetic for eiter complementarianism or egalitarianism. Rater it is a masterpiece of blending bot istorical records wit biblical exegesis to present a well-reasoned biblical answer to te burning question from tis generation and tose to come. Te volume is set apart primarily because of its torougly digested reasoning and study tat comes fort in a very concise and balanced presentation of te ope tat is witin every woman s eart, i.e., tat indeed tere is a place of service for eac of us in te kingdom of Crist. Moreover, te Lord as clearly set te boundaries and opportunities for tat service in te words of Holy Scripture, and He as oversadowed te outworkings of tese guidelines in istorical examples tat xiii
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH reaffirm and clarify wat Scripture is saying. Ryrie refuses to bow to istorical revisionism or to adjust istory or to dismiss words of curc leaders wo spoke carelessly or from personal prejudice. However, e does put wat is recorded in istory in perspective and context. Te consistency is amazing wen evaluating te parts in ligt of te wole. Nowere is tere a clearer presentation of te sayings of te ancient curc faters on tis subject set witin a framework tat is concise, wile allowing te overview of te wole as well as te minute examination of te many passages tat make up te parts. Tis volume as remained on my reading list and on te bibliograpy of virtually every course I teac in women s studies. I encouraged my students to look for te volume even wen it was out of print. Now I rejoice to know tat tis timeless work of Carles Ryrie will be available for use as a text in colleges and seminaries across te world as well as available to lay women and men seeking answers to difficult questions and even to pastors and scolars wo want to see a clearly defined and tersely stated response to tis callenging question before te evangelical world and all Cristendom. Doroty Kelley Patterson Professor of Teology in Women s Studies Soutwestern Baptist Teological Seminary Fort Wort, Texas xiv
PREFACE Attitudes toward te role of women in te curc are rapidly canging in our day. Te material in tis book is presented so tat all migt ave a better perspective concerning tis subject wic is coming to te forefront of ecclesiastical tougt and life. Altoug one may coose not to be guided by te lessons of Scripture and istory, one cannot afford to be ignorant of tem. Wile te autor as convictions concerning tis subject, it is certainly not a doctrinal obby wit im. It is sincerely oped tat tis book will be received in te same spirit in wic it is offered. Te researc wic forms te basis for tis work was done during studies at te University of Edinburg, and te autor wises to acknowledge wit appreciation te counsel of Professors J. H. S. Burleig and Mattew Black. Te canges and additions to tis revision were done by Tamra Hernandez and te updates on te subject index by Katie Frugé, P.D., students at Soutwestern Baptist Teological Seminary in Fort Wort, Texas. xv
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH May te Spirit of God wose ministry it is to guide us into all te trut (Jon 16:13) find teacable minds and earts in all wo read tese pages. Carles C. Ryrie xvi
CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUNDS Numerous difficulties beset te treatment of a subject suc as te one discussed in tis book. Feminists and teir efforts at revisionism and faddists, wo are intent on culture-driven interpretation as superior, are but two of tem. Autor and reader alike must be constantly on guard against trying to prove a particular pet point merely from te istorical facts. And yet, few subjects are as important in curc governance and work. Ecclesiastical bodies trougout te world are discussing te role of women in te curc. Tose wo ave not discussed te matter officially are facing te problem unofficially and on te local level. Wat did te introduction of Cristianity do for te status of women? Wat does te New Testament say concerning teir 1
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH place in te ome and curc? How did tose wo lived in te days following te writing of te New Testament interpret its doctrines about women? Tese are but a few of te questions tis book attempts to answers. Te Word of God is accepted as inspired and autoritative, yet te approac is istorical. Tis study concerning biblical principles for application today seeks fact, not fancy; trut, not teory; instruction, not imagination. Altoug te subject of tis book will not permit a full and complete discussion of te status of women outside te Cristian curc or troug te breadt of istory, to begin wit a survey of te position of women in ancient Greece, Rome, and Judaism is obviously imperative and will provide te necessary background for te ensuing discussion. Tis background study will elp to sow at te very outset wat effect, if any, te environment in wic Cristianity developed ad on its message and practice; tat is to say, to wat extent te status of women in Cristianity was dependent upon or to wat extent it differed from te status of women in Greek, Roman, and Jewis life. Te Status of Women in Ancient Greece By comparison, Greek women were accorded somewat iger respect tan women of oter ancient pagan societies. Neverteless, women were under te autority and control of teir usbands bot by custom and by law and found 2
Backgrounds temselves almost on te same level wit te slave. Plato, of course, vigorously affirmed te equality of te sexes and te community of wives. 1 He speaks of te natural partnersip of te sexes, 2 and as a result of tat belief olds tat women naturally sare in all pursuits. 3 However, Plato s views were exceptional. Actually, te truer representative of Greek tougt was Aristotle, wo regarded te inferiority of women as inerent in te sex. 4 Te love of Te Symposium is omosexual love, and it is assumed witout argument tat tis alone is capable of satisfying a man s igest and noblest aspirations, and te love of man and woman, wen it is mentioned at all, is spoken of as altogeter inferior, a purely pysical impulse wose sole object is te procreation of cildren. 5 Te rise of te City-State was an important influence on te status of women in Greece. Since te City-State was supreme, all individual wises were subordinated to it. In Sparta, for instance, women were cultivated pysically in order tat tey migt be good moters and produce sons wo would be superior warriors. However, no tougt was taken for women after teir days of cildbearing were over, wit te result tat standards became very lax. Te marriage tie could be dissolved by te usband witout any scruple, reason, form, or legal process. Tis importance of breeding warriors for te State gave te women of Sparta full liberty to sow temselves in public in te performance of bodily exercises. However, one 3
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH must note again tat tis liberty was not te result of a pilosopic idea of te equality of te two sexes, but was founded on te desire of producing strong cildren by means of strengtening te body of te female. 6 In Atens, likewise, te State was all important. All te citizens of Atens were connected by blood ties of some sort, and tey took great pains to maintain tis common bond. Consequently, careful distinction was made between citizens and strangers and among te offspring of eac group. Citizen women, terefore, were forced to lead very secluded lives. Teir existence is well described tus: Te life of married women, maidens, cildren wile in te care of women, and of female slaves, passed in te gynaikonitis [te part of te ouse reserved for domestic purposes], from wic tey issued only on rare occasions. Te family life of Greek women widely differed from our Cristian idea; neiter did it resemble te life in an Oriental arem, to wic it was far superior. Te idea of te family was eld up by bot law and custom, and altoug concubinage and te intercourse wit etairai was suffered, nay favored, by te State, still suc impure elements never intruded on domestic relations. Our following remarks refer, of course, only to te better classes, te struggle for 4
Backgrounds existence by te poor being te same in all ages. In te seclusion of te gynaikonitis te maiden grew up in comparative ignorance. Te care bestowed on domestic duties and on er dress was te only interest of er monotonous existence. Intellectual intercourse wit te oter sex was wanting entirely. Even were maidens appeared in public at religious ceremonies, tey acted separately from te youts.... Even marriage did not cange tis state of tings. Te maiden only passed from te gynaikonitis of er fater into tat of er usband. In te latter, owever, se was te absolute ruler, te oikodespoina of er limited spere. Se did not sare te intellectual life of er usband.... It is true tat te usband watced over er onor wit jealousy, assisted by gynaikonomoi, sometimes even by means of lock and key.... [H]er position was only tat of te moter of te family. Indeed, er duties and acievements were ardly considered, by te usband, in a muc iger ligt tan tose of a faitful domestic slave. 7 Suc seclusion, owever, did not mean tat tese wives were ignorant women, for many were self-trained. Noneteless, altoug te Greeks were a race of great tinkers, poets, sculptors, painters, and arcitects, not one Atenian woman ever 5
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH attained to te sligtest distinction in any one department of literature, art, or science. 8 However, tis seclusion did not mean inactivity, for te wife was in full carge of all domestic affairs of er ouseold. Se was absolute ruler in tis realm, and in er own way se did ave a place of onor. But Pericles expresses te prevailing view concerning women in te funeral oration tat Tucydides puts into is mout: If I am to speak also of womanly virtues... I will sum up all in a brief admonition: Great is your glory if you fall not below te standard wic nature as set for your sex, and great also is ers of wom tere is least talk among men weter in praise or in blame. 9 Some women, called etairai (Gk., feminine plural of companion ), were forbidden to marry citizens. Tey did not, you may be sure, lead a monastic existence but enjoyed muc greater freedom tan te wives of citizens. Tey became te companions, bot intellectual and pysical, of Atenian men. Demostenes summary of te status of tese various groups of women is brutally frank: Hetairai we keep for te sake of pleasure, concubines for te ordinary requirements of te body, wives to bear us legitimate cildren and to be faitful guardians of our ouseolds. 10 After te time of Alexander te Great, women began to ave a relatively greater measure of freedom, especially in 6
Backgrounds Macedonia, due largely to te fact tat Macedonian dynasties produced an extraordinary succession of able and masterful women suc as Arsinoe, Berenice, and Cleopatra. Tese women played a large part in civic affairs, for tey received envoys... built temples, founded cities, engaged mercenaries, commanded armies, eld fortresses, and acted on occasion as regents or co-rulers. 11 Even more important is tat from te courts of Macedonia relative freedom came to tose women wo desired emancipation. Tey could be educated, take part in club life, appear at te games, and in general enjoy freer relations wit men. Neverteless, most of tese tings clearly relate only to a minority. Freedom was not automatic, but ad to be grasped; education for te mass was rudimentary, and even in te first century tere were women, ric enoug to own slaves, wo could neiter read nor write. Greece suffered from te sexes being on different levels of culture. 12 Tus one may conclude tat in te Greek world te status of women was decidedly inferior to tat of men; wives led lives of seclusion and practical slavery; te etairai, toug, at least enjoying more freedom of movement, did not sare te rigts or status tat belonged to men; and te relative freedom tat 7
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH did come to women in places like Macedonia was enjoyed only by a minority. Te Status of Women in Ancient Rome Under te Roman Empire women enjoyed a somewat better standing tan in Greece. Legally, owever, te wife was still regarded merely as a piece of property completely under te control of te usband. Yet in practice te law was interpreted oterwise, and women enjoyed considerable freedom. Furter, te wife was not kept in seclusion as in a Greek ouseold; rater, se sared er usband s life and set a standard of wifely and moterly virtues envied in a later age. 13 Any suc freedom was not, of course, gained all at once. Te laws of te Republic made every fater and usband a despot. Because some usbands cose to assert teir legally constituted role, 14 tere were two waves of feminine reaction, wic took te form of mass poisoning of usbands in 331 BC and 180 BC. In 215 BC a law proposed by Oppius at a time wen state finances were low and expenditures ad to be curbed provided tat no woman sould be allowed to possess more tan a alf ounce of gold, to wear a parti-colored garment, to ride in a cariot witin te city of Rome or a town occupied by Roman citizens, or witin a mile of tese places, except for religious purposes. 15 Wen more prosperous days returned, Roman matrons, wo ad been cafing under tis law, sougt and won 8
Backgrounds its repeal. One of te arguments against te repeal was tis: If tey win in tis, wat will tey not attempt? Review all te laws wit wic your forefaters restrained teir license and made tem subject to teir usbands, even wit all tese bonds you can scarcely control tem. 16 Tese quotations sow clearly bot te restraint under wic Roman women lived (i.e., in being subject to teir usbands), togeter wit te freedom tey enjoyed (i.e., aving liberty to appear in public). 17 Along wit tis partial emancipation came increased moral laxity. Women sougt escape from te control of teir usbands wit te result tat divorce became more common. Toug Seneca s famous remark about divorce does not necessarily represent te condition of te majority of women, it noneteless indicates te trend of te day. He asked (in AD 54), Is tere any woman tat bluses at divorce now tat certain illustrious and noble ladies reckon teir years, not by te number of consuls, but by te number of teir usbands, and leave ome in order to marry, and marry in order to be divorced? In addition, oter vices were common in Roman society at te time of Crist. Anoter as summarized te situation well: Wit rare exceptions, tey [te Romans] copied only te vices of te Greeks. Te old frugal, industrious, and virtuous manner of life practised by teir ancestors was in too many instances excanged for an idle, 9
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH luxurious, and sensual existence.... Hand in and wit increasing wealt and outward prosperity came indolence and corruption, and te State wose citizens could boast tat for five centuries no Roman ad ever to divorce is wife, sank under te emperors to te pitc of moral degradation mirrored... in te opening capter of Paul s epistle. Te fountains of life were poisoned. Altoug te position of women in Rome was for long a muc more dignified one tan in Greece, tere was latterly a greatly diminised value set on marriage, a marked increase in divorces, a general casting off of moral restraint. In te last pre- Cristian century almost every vice was rampant immorality and paiderastia, abortion and infanticide, gluttony and avarice, cruelty and sycopancy, gambling and suicide, indecency in pictures, at public races, and on te stage. 18 Religious movements ad bot good and bad effects on te status of women. Stoicism, first taugt in Greece by Zeno and taken over in Roman times by te pilosoper Seneca, te slave Epictetus, and te emperor Marcus Aurelius, tended to elevate te position of women. It inculcated lofty etical standards, including a single standard of castity for men and women alike. On te oter and, te worsip of Baccus, wic was 10
Backgrounds practiced by many women, incorporated sameful vices tat greatly degraded women. In 181 BC te cult was declared illegal, and te worst offenders were put to deat. 19 Balance is te most necessary ingredient in trying to arrive at a true evaluation of te status of women in Roman society and avoid a one-sided exaggeration. Te moral principles of Stoicism must be balanced wit te knowledge tat tey were not widely applied; te evident degradation of society must be balanced wit te realization tat among te common people trougout te empire tere were doubtless many wo ad neiter part nor lot in te ridiculous dainties or bestial practices of te wanton revellers pilloried in te literature of te age. 20 Clearly women enjoyed greater practical, if not legal, freedom in Roman tan in Greek society, and tis aided te spread of Cristianity because women participated more freely in religious activities. It also resulted in te laxity and licentiousness against wic Cristianity spoke and from wic it protected its women. Finally, we may conclude tat te most important relation between Cristianity and te Roman way of life is a relation of contrast, and almost all agree tat Cristian teacing concerning women stood in sarp contrast to anyting found in te eaten world. 11
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH Te Status of Women in Judaism A woman s position in Judaism seems to be a paradox. On te one and tere is te well-known saying of te synagogue service, Blessed art tou, O Lord our God, King of te universe, wo ast not made me a woman. 21 On te oter and tere are te lofty words concerning womanood in te Proverbs: Wo can find a virtuous woman? for er price is far above rubies.... Strengt and onour are er cloting; and se sall rejoice in time to come. Se openet er mout wit wisdom; and in er tongue is te law of kindness. Se looket well to te ways of er ouseold, and eatet not te bread of idleness. Her cildren arise up, and call er blessed; er usband also, and e praiset er. 22 Te paradox can only be resolved wit a rigt understanding of woman s spere of service, for according to Jewis ideas, te special and supreme spere of woman is te ome. Tere er position as always been one of uncallenged dignity. Public affairs and public activities lie outside te ome and terefore outside woman s special spere. 23 Even te prayer of te synagogue service quoted above supports tis idea of a special spere, for immediately following tat prayer, wic is offered by te men, is one offered by te women, wo say, 12
Backgrounds Blessed art tou, O Lord our God, King of te universe, wo ast made me according to ty will. 24 J. H. Hertz s commentary on its meaning asserts tat te true spirit of it is: wo as made me a woman, to win earts for tee by moterly love or wifely devotion; and to lead souls to tee, by daugter s care or sisterly tenderness and loyalty. 25 Tus tese prayers, wic were instituted after Ezra s revival, empasize te distinction between te man and te woman and te special spere of service of eac. However, Judaism did sare te universal conception of te inferiority of women; but, unlike Islam, for instance, it did not sanction te total subjection of women to men, but rater sougt to elevate women witin teir proper spere. Neiter was tere in Judaism te separation between te sexes so common among oter peoples, for Hebrew women mixed more freely and often took a positive and influential part in bot public and private affairs. Te Status of Women in Private Life Te distinctiveness and dignity of women are well illustrated in te private, family life in of Israel. Immediately tere come to mind outstanding women in Jewis istory suc as Sara, Rebeka, Lea, Racel (designated te four moters by te rabbis), as well as Manoa s wife, Hanna, Rut, Naomi, and 13
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH Ester, wose private lives played an important part in Israel s istory. Neverteless, distinctiveness was recognized at te birt of a female cild, for te Jews required a double period of purification after te birt of a girl. 26 Wen it came time for te cild to be educated, se would discover tat te rabbis disapproved of te same amount of instruction being given to er as to boys. Certain brances of learning, suc as legal studies, were entirely forbidden to women simply because many rabbis felt tat a woman s mind was incapable of grasping suc investigations. However, all tis does not mean tat te education of girls was entirely neglected. In te time of Crist, cildren of te poor were educated by means of contributions collected in te temple, and orpans were te special carge of te wole congregation. 27 Attendance at religious ceremonies furter contributed to te education of girls, and evidently from te New Testament accounts of suc women as Lois, Eunice, and Priscilla, some Hebrew women obtained a good religious education. But, in general, tere was little recognition of te mental capacities of women. Te paradoxical situation of subordination and dignity is furter illustrated in matrimonial matters. Subordination is seen in te woman s legal rigts, and dignity is evinced by er position and activity in te ome. Legally, te position of a Jewis woman was very low. One writer declares tat it would 14
Backgrounds be misleading to apply te term free-woman to any Israelitess, except peraps to a widow. 28 Female slaves were, of course, at te complete disposal of teir masters. Te concubine s position was sligtly better because certain restrictions were imposed upon one wo ad a concubine. If e no longer desired er, e could not simply dismiss er but eiter ad to maintain er, let er go free, or permit er relatives to redeem er. 29 In reality, owever, te Jewis woman occupied a more dignified position tan er legal status would suggest. Altoug polygamy was permitted in Israel, witout doubt te monogamy of te patriarcs was eld up as te example to be followed. Certainly te description of te virtuous woman in Proverbs 31 presupposes monogamy. However, te rigt of divorce was at te discretion of te usband, and all tat te wife could expect was a bill of divorcement. 30 In te days of Malaci, divorce was quite common; 31 but by te time Crist appeared on eart, it was probably muc less frequent, since in te first century BC a requirement came tat te dowry ad to be returned if te wife was divorced. 32 It does not follow, owever, from tese facts tat Cristianity inerited from Judaism only a morally lax and legally rigid standard in matrimonial matters. Doubtless tere were many faitful women wo must ave kept te moral atmospere pure and sweet, and sed precious ligt on teir omes and on society, corrupt to te core as tis society was under te sway of eatenism. 33 15
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH In te ome, te Jewis woman s position was one of dignity and responsibility. Se was er usband s conscience carged wit te task of encouraging im in all oliness. 34 Cildren, wo were a sign of te blessing of God on a ome, were te special carge of te moter. Te general practice seems to ave been tat te moter named te cildren. 35 As te cildren grew older, te woman s oly vocation was to assist in teir training, for te first teacing would naturally devolve on te moter. And yet in tis training se did not act alone, for te fater joined er in a complementary relationsip, and equal reverence to bot parents was expected from te cildren. 36 Tus in tis regard, at least, a Jewis moter fulfilling er responsibilities in te spere of er ome receives equal onor wit te fater. Furter evidence of te influence of te moter in te lives of er cildren is te attention given in te Old Testament to te naming of te moters of te kings of Juda. Te moter of Zebedee s cildren, te moter of Jon Mark, women like Lois and Eunice also illustrate te influence of te moter. Judaism allowed te ome; bot parents ministered to te congregation of cildren. In tis, Cristianity as drawn in large measure on its eritage from Judaism. Subordination, subjection, dignity, and responsibility correctly describe te various aspects of te private life of a Hebrew woman, but in te spere of te ome er place was beyond question a prominent one. 16
Backgrounds Te Status of Women in Public Life For a Jewis woman, public life is practically synonymous wit religious life, and in tis er role was neiter passive acquiescence nor one of leadersip. Te religious feeling tat se possessed in common wit oters was bound to assert itself, as it did in various ways. Basic to all tis is te fact tat all te people, 37 including women, were part of God s covenant relationsip, wic He introduced troug Moses. Tat women were surely a part of tis relationsip is made clear by te special protecting commandments given concerning tem. 38 Very few even notice tis point, but one at least as correctly observed: tat wic distinguises te God of Israel from te gods of te nations is, among oter traits, is condescension to te umble; e deigns to establis is covenant wit te cildren, te women and te slaves. 39 Since we believe tat Judaism was a supernaturally given religious revelation from God, tis point gains importance; for it guarantees women before te true God a standing tat tey did not ave in any eaten religious relationsip. Altoug te position was tus, te practice was not; for te majority of women were entirely dependent on man, and became in religious matters a sort of appendix to teir usbands, wo by teir good actions insured salvation also for tem. 40 Neverteless, tere is sufficient evidence of distinctively feminine religious activities to enable one to see tat 17
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH women did make some use of teir privilege as co-eirs of te covenant. Te Mosaic law expected te presence of women at te sanctuary at te festal seasons, for daugters and maidservants were to join wit sons and manservants. 41 Women were present in te congregation wen te Law was read in te time of Neemia. Likewise, tey were at te feast tat David made in onor of te recovering of te ark, 42 and te daugters of Silo could be counted on to be present at te annual feast. 43 Hanna and Peninna, wo went to te annual gatering in Silo, are examples of women participating in public prayer. 44 Furtermore, women could take part in te sacrifices, for te fact tat tey were forbidden to eat te fles of te sin offering indicates tat tey were permitted to sare in oter offerings, 45 and tere is no question but tat tey offered sacrifices for purification. 46 Women, as well as men, were permitted to separate temselves unto Jeova by taking te vow of a Nazarite. 47 Teopanies were not te experience of men only, for te Old Testament records appearances of God or of te messenger of God to Eve, 48 Hagar, 49 Sara, 50 and te moter of Samson. 51 In addition, rites of mourning were performed by men and women and for men and women alike. 52 Altoug a propetess was an exceptional ting, several outstanding ones appeared in Israel. Miriam, wo is called a propetess, sared eminence wit er broters Moses and Aaron. 53 Debora was a propetess as well 18
Backgrounds as a judge, 54 and Hulda te propetess, wom te king and te ig priest could consult in a matter of spiritual interpretation, 55 was an autority in te days of Josia. Mention is also made of a propetess in Isaia, 56 of te propetess Noadia, 57 and of te aged Anna wo was present at Jesus circumcision. 58 In several instances one of te gifts of te propetesses was te utterance of inspired songs. More commonly, owever, singing women, as well as men, were attaced to te temple and elped form a temple coir. 59 Ewald tinks, on te basis of Ps 68:24 25, tat tese women also lived at te temple, but in any case we certainly may not ascribe to tem any sacerdotal functions. 60 It is also recorded tat women danced on occasions of great victory. Te earliest allusion to women s participation in public worsip is te reference to te serving women at te door of te tabernacle. 61 Te Hebrew word tsabbat suggests a sort of guard of onor around te sanctuary, but to say wat te work of tese women migt ave been beyond tat is impossible. In te days of te synagogue, wen te practice was to invite anyone to speak wo ad someting to say for te edification of te people, tere is no record of any woman ever addressing te synagogue. 62 However, titles of onor were conferred on women, suc as Mistress of te Synagogue, Moter of te Synagogue, and even Ruler of te Synagogue. Altoug te office corresponding to tese titles was not common until after 19
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH te time of Crist, seemingly te title was likely bestowed during te years of His life. However, te office did not carry wit it any ministerial or liturgical duties, and te titles were simply recognizing meritorious work connected wit a religious institution, viz., Carity, 63 because of te woman s rank in te community and social weigt. 64 Tus, to say tat te role of Jewis women in te public religious life of Israel was solely a passive one would not be accurate. To tem belonged, under te covenant, certain religious privileges tat eaten women did not enjoy. Many religious activities were open to tem, and some women participated in tem. Neverteless, oter activities were forbidden tem, and one could not conclude tat tere was universal participation even in tose activities open to tem. Certainly tey did not take a place of leadersip as a general rule; rater, men dominated te public scene in Israel. Te major contribution of Jewis women was in teir service in te ome. Altoug teir legal rigts were practically non-existent, tey were accorded a place of onor in carrying out te privileges of moterood. Te general principle tat applied to te status of women in Judaism was, Te King s daugter witin te palace is all glorious (Psalm xlv. 14), but not outside of it. 65 From tis survey one can note tat te teacings of Cristianity concerning women bear many resemblances to 20
Backgrounds tose of Judaism. Equally clear is te fact tat Cristianity stands in sarp contrast to te treatment of women in ancient Greece and Rome. All of tis will be demonstrated in greater detail wit te investigation of te status of women in te Cristian curc; meanwile te purpose of tis capter to sketc te situation into wic te gospel came as been fulfilled. QUESTIONS 1. Wat was te life of te wife like in a ome in ancient Greece? 2. How did te religious life of Rome affect te women of tat society? 3. Wat responsibilities did a Jewis moter ave in er ome? 4. Did a Jewis woman take any part in te religious life of te nation? Endnotes 1. Te Republic, V, V, 457 66. 2. Ibid., V, V, 466. 3. Ibid., V, V, 455. 4. Politics, I, V, 2. 21
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH 5. Plato, Te Symposium, trans. W. Hamilton (Harmondswort, UK: Penguin Books, 1951), 12. 6. E. Gul and W. Koner, Te Life of te Greeks and Romans (London: Capman & Hall, 1875), 188. 7. Ibid., 185. 8. James Donaldson, Woman: Her Position and Influence in Ancient Greece and Rome, and Among te Early Cristians (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1874), 55. 9. History of te Peloponnesian War, II, XLV, 2. 10. Demostenes, Teomnestus and Apollodorus against Neaera in Demostenes: Private Orations, vol. 3, Orations L LIX, trans. A. T. Murray (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1939), 122. 11. W. W. Tarn, Hellenistic Civilization (London: Edward Arnold & Co., 1927), 84. 12. Ibid., 86. 13. R. H. Barrow, Te Romans (Harmondswort, UK: Penguin Books, 1949), 21. 14. Under te laws of te Republic, te paterfamilias, te oldest male in te family, ad absolute life and deat autority over te persons in te family and te family s property. Women ad few legal rigts and required a male guardian trougout teir lives. At marriage, legal control of te woman was transferred from te fater to te usband. Upon te deat of er usband, te woman came under te autority of er oldest son, if e was of age, or a male relative. 15. Livy, Te History of Rome, XXXIV, I, 3. 16. Ibid., XXXIV, III, 1. Roman women gained influence troug te control and management of teir ouseolds. Wile men were occupied wit political and military affairs, women asserted more autority in te domestic realm. Roman women 22
Backgrounds began to inerit and own property in teir own rigt, including slaves. Inscriptional evidence indicates tat women were involved in a wide range of activities: artisans, jewelry makers, tradespeople, bakers, seamstresses, airdressers, domestics, entertainers, masseurs, midwives, wetnurses, and prostitutes (Bella Vivante, Women s Roles in Ancient Civilizations: A Reference Guide [Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999], 265). Work in textiles weter spinning, weaving, or dyeing was consistently associated wit te work of women. Te loom was often used as an emblem for a woman. Even Emperor Augustus s daugter and granddaugters spun and wove, and e wore te work of te ands of is wife and sisters (Ludwig Friedländer, Roman Life and Manners under te Early Empire, trans. Leonard A. Magnus [New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1908 13], 1:230). Te remains at Pompeii provide vivid examples of te roles many Roman women were able to take in te life of te city. One of te largest buildings on te forum of Pompeii is a building given by Eumacia to te fuller s guild. Eumacia inerited some wealt from er fater, wo was a brick maker. Se married into one of te establised families in Pompeii and became public priestess, sacerdos publica, of Venus in te city. Signs and advertisements trougout Pompeii also sow women active in bot business and te public affairs of te city. Trougout te Roman Empire, women can be found as benefactors and public officers. Toug te women rarely ad public speaking roles, teir names are found on a myriad of public offices. Many are found commemorated on coins; statues of oters grace te public places. Sometimes te city gave onored burial to noted women of te town. All of tese women were able to acieve positions of influence because of teir wealt or teir family s position (Ramsay MacMullen, Women in Public in te Roman Empire, Historia Zeitscrift für Alte Gescicte 29, no. 2 [1980]: 208 18). 23
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH 17. Seneca, De Beneficiis, III, XVI, 2. 18. William Fairweater, Te Background of te Epistles (Edinburg: T. & T. Clark, 1935), 29 30. 19. Livy, XXXIX, VIII. 20. Fairweater, Background, 29. 21. Te Autorised Daily Prayer Book of te United Hebrew Congregations of te Britis Empire, rev. ed., wit commentary by J. H. Hertz, Cief Rabbi (London: Sapiro, Vallentine & Co., 1947), 21. 22. Prov 31:10,25 28. 23. W. O. E. Oesterley and G. H. Box, Te Religion and Worsip of te Synagogue (London: Sir Isaac Pittman & Sons, 1907), 297 98. 24. Te Autorised Daily Prayer Book, 21. 25. Ibid. 26. Lev 12:2,5. Te birt of a male rendered te moter unclean for 40 days, wile te birt of a female made te moter unclean for 80 days (40 days to purify te moter and 40 days to purify te female cild). Te sacrifice for te burnt offering was te same, regardless of te cild s gender. 27. Alfred Ederseim, Sketces of Jewis Social Life in te Days of Crist (London: Religious Tract Society, 1876), 132 33. 28. W. H. Bennett, Family, A Dictionary of te Bible, ed. James Hastings et al. (Edinburg: T. & T. Clark, 1898), 1:847. 29. Exod 21:7 11. 30. Deut 24:1; Isa 50:1; Jer 3:8. 31. Mal 2:16. 32. George Foot Moore, Judaism in te First Centuries of te Cristian Era (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1927), 2:123. 33. Ederseim, Sketces, 159. 24
Backgrounds 34. In te case of te ruler of te synagogue, it was deemed best tat e be married, especially if e offered up prayer in te congregation, because is wife would preserve im from sin. Cf. Josua L. Bernard, Te Synagogue and te Curc (London: B. Fellows, 1842), 148. 35. Out of te 44 instances in wic te naming of cildren is mentioned in te Old Testament, in 26 it is ascribed to women, in 14 to men, and in 4 to God. Cf. Ismar J. Peritz, Woman in te Ancient Hebrew Cult (New York: Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, 1898), 130 31. 36. Exod 20:12; 21:15,17; Lev 19:3; Deut 5:16; Prov 1:8; 6:20; 20:20; 23:22; 28:24; 30:11,17. 37. Exod 19:11. 38. Exod 22:22 24; Deut 22:13 30. 39. H. Leclercq, Femme, Dictionnaire d Arcéologie Crétienne et de Liturgie, ed. Fernand Cabrol and Henri Leclerq (Paris: Letouzey et Ane, 1907 53), 5.1.1301. 40. S. Scecter, Studies in Judaism (London: Adam & Carles Black, 1898), 1:388. 41. Deut 12:12,18; 14:26; 16:11,14. 42. 2 Sam 8:19. 43. Judg 21:6 25. 44. 1 Sam 1:1 17; 2:1 10. 45. Lev 6:29; 10:14. 46. Lev 12; 15:19 33; Judg 13:20; Ne 12:43. 47. Num 6:2. 48. Gen 3:8 16. 49. Gen 16:7 13; 21:17 19. 50. Gen 18:9,15. 51. Judg 13:3 21. 52. Judg 11:40; 2 Cr 35:25; Jer 16:7. 25
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH 53. Exod 15:20; Num 12:2; Mic 6:4. 54. Judg 4:4. 55. 2 Kgs 22:13 20. 56. Isa 8:3. 57. Ne 6:14. 58. Luke 2:36. 59. Ezra 2:65; Ne 7:67. 60. Heinric Ewald, Te History of Israel (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1878), 285. 61. Exod 38:8. 62. Cf. Luke 4:16,20; Acts 13:14ff. 63. Scecter, Studies in Judaism, 1:386 87. 64. Salomon Reinac, Inscription Grecque de Smyrne. La Juive Rufina, Revue des Études Juives 7 (1883): 165. Furter references to te arcisunagōgos will be found in Emil Scürer, A History of te Jewis People in te Time of Jesus Crist (Edinburg: T. & T. Clark, 1885), 2:63 65; Campegius Vitringa, De Synagoga Vetere Libri Tres (Franequerae: Joannis Gyzelaar, 1696), 580 92, 695 711; and William Mitcell Ramsay, Te Curc in te Roman Empire before A.D. 170 (London: Hodder & Stougton, 1904), 480n. 65. Scecter, Studies in Judaism, 1:391. 26
PART I Te Effect of te Life of Our Lord on te Status of Women
CHAPTER 2 THE MOTHER OF OUR LORD Te effect of te life and ministry of te Lord Jesus on te status of women appropriately begins wit a consideration of Mary His moter, since in a very real sense se represents te turning point in te istory of women. Events Related to te Birt of Jesus Every pious Jewis woman oped tat se migt be te moter of te Messia, and in Mary tis ope was realized. Two evangelists, Mattew and Luke, record te genealogy of Crist, Mattew prefacing is account to te beginning of Crist s life, and Luke is account to te beginning of te Lord s ministry. 1 Differences in te two genealogies, involving a number of problems not easily solved, are at once apparent. Plummer says: 29
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH Te difference between te two genealogies was from very early times felt to be a difficulty... and it is probable tat so obvious a solution, as tat one was te pedigree of Josep and te oter te pedigree of Mary, would ave been very soon advocated, if tere ad been any reason (excepting te difficulty) for adopting it. But tis solution is not suggested by anyone until Annius of Viterbo propounded it, c. a.d. 1490.... If we were in possession of all te facts, we migt find tat bot pedigrees are in accordance wit tem. 2 Despite tese difficulties, certain facts relevant to tis discussion are clear; namely, in tese genealogies are seen principles of subordination and exaltation of women. Subordination is evident in te legal position accorded to Mary. Mattew s intention for including te genealogy in is Gospel was to sow tat in Jesus, as te eir of David and of Abraam, were fulfilled te promises made to tem: te pedigree itself is intended to illustrate tis, rater tan to prove it, and it is not easy to avoid te conclusion tat it is quite artificial. 3 However, in order to demonstrate Jesus rigt to be te eir of David and Abraam, Mattew as to stress Josep as te usband of Mary so tat e may sow te fact tat as Josep recognized is wife s son in a legal sense is own, Jesus was legally te eir 30
THE MOTHER OF OUR LORD of David. 4 Luke, of course, entirely omits Mary s name; and wile e is careful to avoid te impression tat Jesus migt be merely te natural son of Josep, e also disallows te possibility of sligting Jesus kingly claims by avoiding linking Him solely to His moter. 5 Tus, te subordination of women is evident again in Mary s aving to be linked wit te name of er usband in order to give legal status to er Son. On te oter and, a singular exaltation of women is seen in Mattew s genealogy because e includes te names of four women: Tamar, Raab and Rut, and Batseba. 6 Tis becomes especially significant in a list as selective as Mattew s. God accepts tese women as worty of mention by name, extends His forgiveness to tem, and receives tem into te very line of te Messia. Tis styling of te genealogy illustrates anoter way in wic te world was prepared for te teacings of Him wo came in te fullness of time. Turning from te genealogies, one ting sould be noted in te annunciation te angel s proclamation tat Mary was igly favoured. 7 Te verb used, caritoō (Gk.), is found elsewere in te New Testament only in Ep 1:6, from wic passage and te analogy of verbs ending in oō, kecaritōmenē must mean endued wit grace. 8 Great grace was bestowed upon Mary, but it was no greater tan tat wic is bestowed upon every believer, weter male or female, in every generation. 31
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CHURCH Wen Mary returned to Nazaret after visiting Elizabet, Josep, finding er wit cild, was minded to put er away privily. 9 Altoug Josep was only espoused to Mary, tis was entirely in order, for from te moment of er betrotal a woman was treated as if se were actually married. Te union could not be dissolved, except by regular divorce; breac of faitfulness was regarded as adultery. 10 Making a public example of er alludes to te law of te woman suspected of adultery set fort in te Book of Numbers V, 11 31. 11 But, of course, te appearance of te angel to Josep solved is dilemma. 12 All of tese instances demonstrate two tings: In many respects Mary is not an exceptional case, living as se did under Jewis customs regarding women in er day; and yet, se is exceptional by virtue of er relationsip to te Lord Jesus, and in tis se is te turning point in te istory of women by being te first fruits and representative of tat wic te teacings of Jesus did for women. One furter observation must be made: er blessedness is not only related to er Son but is also related to moterood. No man could ave been te moter of Jesus, and yet tis obvious trut is often overlooked. Mary is not only te moter of 32
THE MOTHER OF OUR LORD our Lord; se is te Moter of our Lord. Te Moter could only be a woman; yet te incarnation was in a man. Mary s Public Encounters wit Jesus Four times te general silence tat surrounds Jesus relationsips wit His moter is broken. Te first is te time wen He went to Jerusalem for te Passover at te age of 12. 13 Wen Josep and Mary missed te boy on te omeward journey and returned to find Him in te temple, Jesus plainly told tem tat He must be about His Fater s business. Tis strange and unexpected reply clearly indicated tat in connection wit te work given to Him by His Fater, tere must be no interference from His moter. And yet te Gospel writer adds tat Jesus was subject to His parents. Here is an illustration of te principle, later penned by te apostle Paul, tat obedience in te Lord is expected of cildren toward teir parents. 14 As moters, women are expected to fill a place of autority and leadersip in relating to teir cildren but witout compromising te spiritual responsibilities of tose cildren. Te second incident, te scene at te wedding in Cana, illustrates te same principle. 15 Here Mary appears witout Josep; indeed, tis and all te later notices of te Lord s Moter... confirm te supposition tat e [Josep] died before te Ministry began. 16 Wen te wine was used up, Mary appealed to Jesus for elp, and He replied, Woman, 33