Reading 19: The Arab-Israeli Conflict ( )

Name: Global History & Geography 10 Course Pack The World Since 1945: The Post-War World THE MIDDLE EAST READINGS The Middle East: Reading 19: The Arab-Israeli Conflict Israeli (1948-1993) Reading 20: Islamic Republic of Iran Develops (1700-2011) Reading 21: The Decline of the Ottoman Empire and the Birth of Modern Turkey Reading 22: OPEC (1960 s-2000 s) Directions for all Readings : Create CORNELL NOTES: Reading 19: The Arab-Israeli Conflict (1922-1993) * A mandate is similar to a colony, but the mother country only supervises the mandate, as opposed to directly controlling it * Palestine is the territory currently called Israel, also known as the Holy Land, and contains the city of Jerusalem which is sacred to Jews, Christians and Muslims. WORLD WAR I: In the years before World War I, the Ottoman Empire was gradually drawn into Germany's camp. Germany had been a major world power since its unification in 1870. German leaders dreamed of a Berlin-to-Baghdad railway. The German Kaiser (emperor) sought to extend German influence throughout the Middle East and to challenge Britain wherever possible. After 1905 tensions in Europe reached a fever pitch. The race to build larger armies with the latest weapons increased. And Germany's aggressive claims for world power status nearly resulted in war on more than one occasion before 1914. With France and Russia allied against a growing German military threat, Turkey shifted toward the German camp. After all, Russia had been the chief Ottoman enemy for centuries. For their part, the Russians were happy to see the Straits connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean in the hands of a weak sultan. Control of the Straits by Germany was another matter, however. The instability in the Balkans remained a source of serious international concern. It would be the direct cause of World War I because it made Russia and Austria want to seek influence there. When war finally broke out in the summer of 1914, it was the first conflict since the time of Napoleon to involve all the major European powers. World War I signaled disaster and the end of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire joined forced with Germany and Austria-Hungary to form the central powers. Britain, France, and Russia formed the group called the allied powers. Eventually the United States, Italy, China and Japan joined the Allied side, but they did not participate in the conflict as it spread to the Middle East. The spoils of war to be awarded to the winners of this conflict were strategic sea routes, new territories economic gains of additional markets, and the extension of their defense positions around the world. The British government wanted the support of the Arabs In the war because Britain had much to lose In the Mediterranean region if the Arabs joined forces with the Ottoman Empire. The Arabs within the Ottoman Empire saw the possibility of becoming Independent nations after the war if they allied themselves with Britain and If the Allied side won the war. The British agreed to give the Arabs their Independence after the war if they fought with the British against the Turks. World War I brought an end to the Ottoman Empire, and a new remapping of the Middle East took place. The British and French armed forces took control of the MHSHS History Dept Page 1

lands formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, and, like a giant pie, the Empire was carved into select pieces and shared among the Europeans. Many of the important conflicts in this region today, however, can be traced back to the social and political changes that occurred between 1800 and 1918. HUSSEIN-McMAHON CORRESPONDENCE In 1914 Britain declared that Egypt was her protectorate which meant that Britain was pledged to protect and defend Egypt. The British had helped finance the building of the Suez Canal (which was completed in 1863) which linked the Red Sea with the Mediterranean. Britain, therefore, wanted to protect her economic and military interests in Egypt. During the war, Egypt was to serve as the base for all British military operations In the Middle East. Many soldiers and much equipment were located in the "ancient land of the pharaohs". Sir Henry McMahon was the British High Commissioner and represented Great Britain in Egypt. Sherif (mayor) Hussein of Mecca was the leader of the Arabs in the Arabian Peninsula, who were still considered to be a part of the Ottoman Empire. These two men began a series of communications known as the Hussein-McMahon Letters or Correspondence. In these letters, Britain promised Hussein an independent Arab state at the end of World War I if the Arabs would revolt against the Ottoman Turks. Hussein and his two sons, Faisal and Abdullah, wanted an independent Arab state, but were hesitant about trusting the British. The area the Arabs wanted to establish as Independent was to include the present day countries of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine (today, Israel), Jordan, Iraq, and parts of Saudi Arabia (Including Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and the Gulf States). In 1915, the Ottomans hanged eleven leaders, both Muslims and Christian, for revolting against the Ottoman government in Lebanon. In 1916, 22 Arabs were hanged in Lebanon and Syria. Hussein then declared Arab independence, broke away from the Ottoman Empire, and joined Britain in the war against the Sultan. THE ARAB REVOLT The Arab forces carried on a revolt in the desert. Sherif Hussein was the leader arid was assisted by British Colonel T. E. Lawrence (known as "Lawrence of Arabia"). Lawrence was sent to train the Arab tribes in modern warfare techniques, especially in the use of explosives. With the knowledge, the Arabs concentrated on destroying the Hejaz Railroad, the main means of transportation and communication from the northern Arab countries to the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula. It was also the route used by Muslim pilgrims going to Mecca on pilgrimage. The line ran from Damascus, Syria through Jordan to Medina, Saudi Arabia, for a distance of 810 miles. Hussein and Lawrence led striking forces against the railroad, destroying or damaging much of ft. They were successful in this venture and continue to harass the Turkish troops along the railroad line. This work of dynamiting the train tracks was so successful, that the railroad remain in disuse until 1955 when It was finally repaired. THE SYKES-PICOT AGREEMENT (1916) Little did Sherif Hussein realize that the British government was making secret agreements with other Allied nations at the same time that he and Sir Henry McMahon had come to terms. The Sykes-Picot Agreement divided the spoils of World War I between France and Great Britain. France would gain control over Syria and Lebanon; Britain over Iraq, Jordan, and later Palestine. No mention was made in the agreement of the creation of any Independent Arab nations. Hussein continued to trust the British until after the war. He then realized that the British had no intention of keeping their part of the original bargain as mentioned in the Hussein-McMahon Letters, and that the Western powers were planning to stay in the Middle East after the war. THE BALFOUR DECLARATION Theodor Herzl established the Zionist government in 1897. This movement was an effort by the Jews of Europe and the world to re-establish themselves In their historic homeland, Palestine. Remember, they had been forced to leave their traditional homeland in the first century by the MHSHS History Dept Page 2

Romans and lived In DIASPORA for over 1900 years. When World War I broke out, the Zionist movement gained momentum and the Jews continued to demand that they be allowed to return to their homeland. Theodor Herzl wrote a book, The Jewish State (Der Judenstaat), in which he warned the Jews that they would someday be "destroyed by those in whose countries they currently lived. According to him, their only hope for survival and freedom from persecution, was to create a modern nation of their own, where they could live In peace and freedom. In 1917, Lord Arthur J. Balfour, Foreign Minister of Great Britain, wrote the famous Balfour Declaration. This declaration supported the Zionist movement and the immigration of Jews to Palestine. However, the British needed financial assistance and turned to several rich Jewish leaders of the Zionist movement. One of these leaders was the head of the richest banking family in Europe, Lord Rothschild. It is to him that Sir Balfour wrote the declaration, knowing that immigration of Jews to Palestine could not fully be supported by the British government after World War I was over. THE END OF WORLD WAR I The British began military operations in the Middle East in l914 at the beginning of the war. Egypt was the launching pad" for the Allied forces In the Middle East. By 1916 Sherif Hussein had vowed to help the British against the Ottoman Turks. In December of 1917, British troops under General Allenby drove the Ottomans from Jerusalem. The British were in control. In 1918 Prince Faisal and his Arab troops entered Damascus, Syria with Colonel Lawrence. The Ottoman Empire was crumbling fast. German and Turkish forces were meeting defeat on all of the war fronts. On October 13, 1918, the Ottoman Empire signed a treaty with the British ending World War I in the Middle East. The mandate system of control, introduced after World War I, was a means of the newly formed League of Nations, to handle the territories of the loosing side during the war. The idea of a mandate was that the League would give a territory to one of the Allied winners to administer, but not to fully own. They would continue to administer these territories until the League felt that the peoples living there were prepared to rule themselves. At this point, the Allied mandate power would leave, and, the territory would become an independent nation. Britain and France, however, viewed the mandates as a way of keeping control and influence over their strategic regions In the Middle East. STEPS TO ISRAELI INDEPENDENCE The UN sent a commission to survey the situation in Palestine. With both Jews and Arabs demanding complete sovereignty [independent control] in all of Palestine, the UN General Assembly voted to end the mandate and recommend that Palestine be partitioned into three separate areas. The first are was to be a Jewish state inhabited mostly by Jews. The second area was to be an Arab state. The third area was to be an international zone that would include Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and other nearby holy sites. Both sides were prepared to fight for their objectives. The Palestine Arabs protested that the UN recommendation violated the principle of self-determination. They began to use force to oppose partition and the establishment of a Jewish state. Armed groups from Syria and Jordan began to infiltrate Palestine to assist the Palestinian Arabs. The Zionists, on the other hand, received the United Nations proposal with enthusiasm and resolved to implement it regardless of Arab reaction. The Jews had previously formed a defense force called the Haganah, largely to protect themselves against Arab attacks. Out of the Haganah, and other underground military units, the Jews of Palestine began to build a national army. At first their troops were familiar only with light arms and hit-and-run guerilla tactics. Gradually, however, they were able to acquire heavier weapons from sympathetic parties. After the UN partition resolution in November 1947, conflict between Jews and Arabs grew more intense. Raids, reprisals, and counter-reprisals from both sides were frequent. Neither the British nor the UN was able to stop the fighting. The British mandate ended on May 14, 1948, the same day that Israel proclaimed its independence as a Jewish state. The next day Arab armies from five neighboring Arab states (Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon) invaded the new Israeli state. Despite their determination, the Arab armies could not defeat the Israelis. Finally by July 1949, the UN persuaded all the invading nations except Iraq to sign separate armistice agreements with Israel. MHSHS History Dept Page 3

CONTINUING TENSIONS, 1949-1956 Several issues plagued Israel s relations with Arab nations during the early years of its independence. One of these was the refugee question. About 725,000 Arabs fled Israel to settle in surrounding Arab territories. The fleeing refugees charged that they were driven from their homes by the Israelis. The Israelis, however, claimed that most Arab refugees fled because they were persuaded to leave by their own Arab leaders. Many of the Palestinian refugee population, which today numbers over two and a half million, have continued to demand a return to their homes to Israel. Besides demands on Israel to allow the return of Arab refugees, a further issue complicating the search for peace in the Middle East was the tensions between the United States and the former Soviet Union. The Arabs charged Israel with being a tool of Western imperialism and a means of continuing the Western presence in the Arab world. Israel s economy had been bolstered by Western funds, both from United States government sources and from many people in the United States, and Western Europe who were sympathetic to the Israeli cause. At the same time, many Arab states accepted military and economic aid from the Soviet Union and other Communist countries as well as from the United States, France, and Great Britain. Still another issue was the presence of a UN peacekeeping force in the Middle East. The UN Truce Supervision Organization was established to carry out the provisions of the 1949 armistice agreements. Its main job was to patrol the borders between Israel and its neighbors. After Egypt s conflict with Israel, Great Britain, and France over the Suez Canal in 1956, a United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) was set up to patrol the frontiers between Egypt and Israel. But Egypt continued to bar Israeli shipping from the Canal. Although the UNEF did have some success in preventing terrorist acts along the border between Israel and Egypt, such incidents continued along the Syrian and Jordanian frontiers. THE SIX-DAY WAR, 1967 For some years Egypt had been receiving large supplies of arms from the Soviet Union. In May 1967 Egypt demanded that the UNEF leave its territory and began to send troops and tanks into the Sinai Peninsula to threaten Israel. Another act of provocation was the closing of the strategic Strait of Tiran, thus cutting off Israel s access to the Red Sea and preventing ships from reaching the Suez Canal. These incidents accompanied by threats to destroy Israel precipitated an Israeli attack on Egypt that quickly spread to Syria. Jordan then entered the conflict against Israel. Within six days the Israelis had destroyed the Arab armies. Israel took the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip from Egypt; East Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan; and the Golan Heights from Syria. During the height of the brief war, Egypt sank ships in the Suez Canal to block traffic. The waterway remained closed long after the Six-Day War had come to an end. SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTIONS 242 AND 338 During the 1960s and 1970s, the United Nations adopted two resolutions that attempted to establish the principles for a negotiated settlement in the Middle East. In 1967, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 242, calling for an end to all declarations of war and the withdrawal of Israeli troops from territories captured from the Arabs. In addition, Israel and the Arab states were to respect one another s independence and right to live in peace within secure and recognized borders. The resolution also called for a just settlement of the Palestinian refugee problem. Advancing a step further, in 1973 the United Nations passed UN Security Council Resolution 338, which states that Resolution 242 proposals should be pursued through negotiations. THE OCTOBER (YOM KIPPUR) WAR, 1973 Many Israelis believed that their country was the dominant military power in the Middle East. Because of this belief, they thought they would be able to maintain the status quo without making MHSHS History Dept Page 4

any territorial concessions. Anwar Sadat, Egypt s president, however, was determined to regain the Sinai Peninsula. He convinced Syria to join him in a surprise attack on Israel during October 1973, hoping to return to international attention the question of the territories occupied by Israel. The attack occurred on the holiest of Israel s holy days. Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement), which in 1973 occurred during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan. The war lasted only three weeks. Some of the heaviest battles fought since World War II took place on the Egyptian and Syrian fronts. More Israelis were killed in the war than in the entire period since 1948. Although Israel was taken by surprise and initially suffered setbacks on both fronts, it soon recovered and seized the offensive against Egypt and Syria. But the war ended in a stalemate when the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations intervened. During 1973 and 1974, Henry Kissinger, Secretary of State of the United States, negotiated disengagement agreements [end to fighting] between the warring parties. Israel agreed to withdraw its forces from parts of both the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. Preparations were also made for an international peace conference to settle issues outstanding in the Arab-Israeli conflict. The conference met only once, however. CAMP DAVID PEACE ACCORDS, 1977-1979 By November 1977 Anwar Sadat [Egypt s president] had become impatient with efforts to achieve a peace settlement through an international conference and decided to take the initiative himself. In a surprise announcement he told the Egyptian parliament that he was about to fly to Jerusalem in a direct bid for peace. Sadat s visit and his address to the Israeli parliament was the first direct overture for peace by an Arab leader. It was an event that stirred great enthusiasm throughout Israel. Despite these positive steps, the process of peace negotiations was long and difficult, taking over a year to finally reach agreement. During the year the negotiations frequently were broken off because of disagreements over the Sinai Peninsula and Jewish settlers in Arab territory. Personal conflicts between Sadat and Menachem Begin, the Israeli prime minister, also occurred. Nevertheless, the negotiations were saved from failure by the mediation of President Jimmy Carter of the United States. In 1978 President Carter convened a meeting between Sadat and Begin at Camp David, the Presidential retreat near Washington, DC. At the conclusion of this 12-day meeting a preliminary agreement was signed. The war between Egypt and Israel ended formally in March 1979 with the signing of a peace treaty in Washington. The treaty provided for normalization of relations between Egypt and Israel, the exchange of ambassadors, the return of the Sinai Peninsula with an international peacekeeping force in the region. For their efforts, both Sadat and Begin were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. THE WEST BANK AND GAZA STRIP Israel s continued occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip was not resolved by the 1979 treaty. The treaty, however, made provisions for future negotiations about the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Ever since these territories were occupied in the 1967 war, Israelis have been divided over their disposition. Except for Jerusalem, which Israel has made its capital, many Israelis have opposed annexation [to add territory to existing country] of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Those who favor annexation argue that all of Palestine belongs by historic right to the Jewish state and should not be given up, even as part of a peace settlement. Opponents feel that it is inadvisable to keep territory with such a large Arab population. They point to the high Arab birthrate and argue that Arabs would outnumber Jews in an Israel that included the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. LEBANON INVASION Israel s continued occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip stirred deep resentment among the Palestinian Arabs. By the 1980s demonstrations and protests were frequent. Most inhabitants sympathized with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), the Palestinian nationalist organization that led the fight against Israel. Israeli leaders at the time believed that unrest in the MHSHS History Dept Page 5

occupied territories could be suppressed if the PLO s bases and headquarters in Lebanon were destroyed. They also felt that destruction of the PLO would end the terrorist attacks launched from Lebanon across Israel s northern border. In June 1982 Israel began a massive invasion of Lebanon. The invasion was intended to destroy the PLO and to force Lebanon to sign a peace treaty with Israel. Israel s minister of defense, confidently told his government that the fighting would be over in a few days. The fighting lasted for longer, however, and Israeli forces surrounded Beirut, Lebanon s capital, pushing farther into Lebanon than was planned. The Israelis besieged the PLO forces in Beirut for several weeks. Then through United States intervention, the fighting was ended. Thousands of civilians had been wounded, and many killed. Large-scale destruction took place in southern Lebanon and in the capital. Israel lifted the siege in August after an agreement was reached to withdraw PLO forces from Beirut. PALESTINIAN UPRISING In December 1987 a major uprising of Palestinians, known as the intifada, in the occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip occurred. More than half the inhabitants in these territories had lived all their lives under Israeli military control. They had become resentful of the restrictions imposed on them by the Israeli army. These included frequent curfews, deportation of many politically active leaders, arrests without trial for hundreds suspected of terrorist acts, school and university closings, and interference in daily life. Although the uprising began as a spontaneous demonstration, it soon became an organized movement with an underground leadership that demanded an end to Israeli occupation, the release of all political prisoners, and the establishment of an independent Palestinian state. More than 800 people were killed during the intifada. Most Palestinians supported the PLO as the leader of the Palestinian nationalist movement. Israel, however, never recognized the PLO, labeling it a terrorist organization and never allowing it to operate in its territories. Furthermore, the Israeli government opposed the establishment of a Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. But disagreement over what to do with the occupied territories continued. The minimum that Palestinians were willing to accept was far more than most Israelis were willing to concede. The maximum that most Israelis were willing to give was far too little for the Palestinians. All the Arab states, including Egypt, supported Palestinian demands for an independent state. This intifada ended in 1993. Reading 20: Islamic Republic of Iran Develops (1700-2011) Iran is an Islamic country, but not an Arab country. About two thirds of the Iranian people speak Farsi or some Persian dialect and one fifth a Turkish dialect called Azari. The country, which stands on the high Iranian Plateau, contains diverse ethnic, linguistic, and tribal groups. It covers an area larger than 600,000 square miles. THE EFFECTS OF COLONIALISM ON PERSIA (IRAN) During the nineteenth century Iran suffered from the territorial ambitions of the great colonial powers. From the time of Empress Catherine the Great (1762-1796) of Russia until the midnineteenth century, Persia and Russia were involved in diplomatic maneuvers and wars. Persia bargained with Napoleon for protection against Russia, but after Napoleon abandoned his plans for the Middle East, Persia lost its chief defender. In the following decades Russia seized several Persian provinces. Many of these annexed provinces became part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) after 1917. Persia also lost its rights to use the Caspian Sea. To compensate for their losses to the Russians, the Persians claimed Afghan territory and attempted to seize parts of the country. But the British did not want Persia to take over any part of Afghanistan because Britain could not permit any nation outside its empire to control the mountain passes to MHSHS History Dept Page 6

India. To forestall the loss of Afghan territory, the British themselves occupied parts of the country and forced Persia to surrender its claims. With Afghanistan as a base the British were able to restrict Russian penetration of Persia. London s policy was to keep both countries free, but dependent upon Britain. Concerned with the growing strength of Germany, Britain and Russia agreed to settle their differences over Persia in 1907. Persia was divided into three spheres of influence. Russia was to have a free hand in developing its economic interests in the north. Southern Persia was to become a British sphere of influence. The area between was to remain a neutral zone. Southern Persia s value to Great Britain was underscored by the discovery of oil. The Anglo-Persian Oil Company formed in 1908, mostly with British capital, became an instrument for British influence in southern Persia. Soon after the discovery of oil, Persia became the chief supplier of fuel to the British navy. Persia thus became important to Britain as Egypt had earlier because of the Suez Canal. During World War II, Iran was occupied by the British and by Russians because it provided a route for Allied supplies to Russia. After the war, the intervention of the United Nations and the United States was needed to persuade the Soviets to evacuate the northern provinces which they had taken over in 1942. THE PAHLAVI DYNASTY Reza Khan, a former army colonel seized power in 1923 and made himself shah in 1925, changing his name from Khan to Pahlavi, after an ancient Persian dynasty. The shah was impressed with the material progress of the West. He attempted to update his country by building factories, railways, and hospitals. Reza Shah also wanted to modernize the outward appearance of his subjects. Women were ordered to discard the veil and their traditional shapeless black garb. Reza Shah s efforts to achieve modernization, however, met with resistance. Conservative religious leaders claimed that these efforts threatened Islam. The tribal chiefs feared losing control over their followers. The wealthy landowners feared that their ownership of vast tracts of land was endangered. But during World War II, Reza Shah admired the Fascists and Nazis and he was deposed by the Allies, who occupied his country. His son and successor, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi nearly lost his throne when nationalists threatened to take over the government. However, with the backing of the United States, the Iranian army managed to keep the shah in power. During the 1960s the shah initiated a number of economic and social reforms aimed at improving living conditions among the impoverished peasants. These efforts were taken despite opposition from groups that had opposed his father, and from nationalists who believed that their ruler was too closely identified with Western imperialism. INCREASING OPPOSITION TO THE SHAH As opposition to the shah increased, his regime became more repressive. By the early 1970s the shah dominated the most important sectors of society the army, the landed aristocracy, the wealthy merchants, and the government bureaucracy. The shah s secret police, the State Organization for Intelligence and Security known as SAVAK from the initials of its name in Farsi (the Persian language), arrested thousands of dissidents, many of whom were tortured in the shah s prisons. In 1979 Amnesty International, a private organization devoted to the fostering of human rights and the elimination of political repression, reported that Iran had the highest rate of death penalties in the world, no valid system of civil courts, and its history of torture is beyond belief. Despite reform programs in agriculture, the expansion of industry, and the growth of the educational system, Iran still had many problems. Chief among them was that only a small percentage of the population seemed to benefit from the reform programs, which the shah called the White Revolution. As one of the largest producers of oil in the Middle East, Iran used its oil revenues to develop its resources. But most projects were grandiose schemes that did little to raise the living conditions of the average peasant. It had the largest landholdings and owned many shares in the government s newly established industries, depositing Iran s profits in investments in Europe and the United States where the income from these investments was at the shah s private disposal. The shah also aspired to make Iran the dominant power in the Middle East. He invested billions of dollars in the most modern sophisticated weaponry, most of it acquired from the United States. His MHSHS History Dept Page 7

army was thought to be the most powerful in the Gulf region. As the backbone of the shah s regime, it was considered capable of protecting the shah s government against any uprising. Between 1963 and 1979, the Shah spent billions of oil dollars on military weapons. The real price of military strength was the loss of popular support. But by the late 1970s it was becoming increasingly evident that neither the reforms of the White Revolution nor the repression of SAVAK could stem the rising tide of discontent. Mass demonstrations demanding either major reforms or removal of the shah erupted throughout the country. Neither the army nor the police could stop them. Workers in the oil fields resented the widening gap between the rich and the poor. Students and other intellectuals objected to censorship and restraints on the press and intellectual life. The nationalists opposed Iran s growing dependence on the United States for arms and political support. Middle class entrepreneurs (risk-taking business men) feared competition from the new governmentcontrolled industries. Finally, clergy of the Shi ia sect, a majority of Iran s Muslim population, resented the shah s efforts toward modernization. THE ISLAMIC REVOLUTION Iran s Shi ia clerics traditionally were regarded by villagers and the poor as defenders of the oppressed against the ruling powers. The Shi ia clergy were particularly hostile to the shah because of his attempts at forced modernization and his schemes to return Iran s calendar, flag, and other national symbols to representations of pre-islamic ancient Persia. The most prominent opposition leader was the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the highest ranking cleric in Iran s Islamic establishment. Khomeini, who had been exiled by the shah during the 1960s and was living in France, was still looked to for leadership by the various dissident factions in Iran. In 1978 the shah was no longer able to keep his government together. Neither was he able to deal with the displays of civil disobedience that swept through the country. Unable to sustain economic progress and unwilling to expand democratic freedoms, the Shah's regime collapsed in revolution. On January 16, 1979, the Shah fled Iran, never to return. Several days after their departure, Khomeini returned from France and formed a Council of the Islamic Revolution, which took control of the country. ESTABLISHMENT OF A THEOCRACY During the next few months, Iran s Shi ia leaders established a theocracy (a government ruled by or subject to religious authority). First they set up revolutionary tribunals (courts) to conduct secret trials and executions of former officials, military officers, SAVAK agents, and associates of the shah. They introduced a new Islamic constitution that gave priority to Muslim law and institutions. A 12- member Council of Guardians that was led by the Ayatollah was put in charge of the government to assure that all legislation complied with Shi ia principles. Within a year, opponents of the theocracy were weeded out, including many individuals and factions who had helped to overthrow the shah. Those no longer acceptable were Communists, socialists, secular nationalists, members of Kurdish political organizations, and even moderate Islamic republicans like Abdul Hasan Bani-Sadr, the first president of the Islamic Republic. In 1981, Bani Sadr, once one of Khomeini s closest advisers in exile, broke with Khomeini and fled to France. THE IRANIAN HOSTAGE CRISIS- 444 DAYS On November 4, 1979, 3,000 militants overran the U.S. Embassy in Teheran and captured 54 embassy staff members. Religious extremist and Iranian leader Ayatollah Khomeini praised their actions. The militants demanded that: the Shah, who ruled Iran for decades and was now seeking medical treatment in the West, be turned over to them for trial; the United States apologize for crimes against the Iranian people; and the Shah's assets be paid to them. These fifty-four American prisoners were held for more than a year; they suffered solitary confinement, beatings, and terrifying mock executions. During the year of captivity, President Jimmy Carter, who had refused to return the Shah to Iran or apologize for past U.S. aid to his regime, was unable to gain the hostages' release through diplomatic MHSHS History Dept Page 8

means. He attempted to isolate Iran economically, freezing Iranian assets in the United States and urging other nations to sever trade ties to Iran. Jimmy Carter's standing in the opinion polls sank as the crisis continued. In desperation, he mounted a rescue raid which failed and embarrassed him. The political reaction led to congressional votes for increased military expenditures and a presidential election campaign issue that helped doom President Carter's reelection efforts. Jimmy Carter continued his intense efforts to free the hostages and finally succeeded in late 1980, too late to benefit his presidential election effort. In fact last minute delays, and perhaps deliberate stalling, prevented the hostages from actually being freed until some minutes after Ronald Reagan was inaugurated president POLITICAL CONDITIONS Iran s post-revolution difficulties have included an 8-year war with Iraq, internal political struggles and unrest, and economic disorder. By mid-1982, the clergy had won a succession of post-revolution power struggles that first eliminated the center of the political spectrum and then the leftists. Although Iran experienced a partial expansion of political and social freedoms during the tenure of former president Khatami, serious problems remained. Since taking office in 2005, President Ahmadi-Nejad s administration has cracked down on civil society, continued to violate human rights, tightened constraints on press freedom, and harassed activists, including Nobel Prize laureates and reform leaders. The Islamic Republican Party (IRP) was Iran's sole political party until its dissolution in 1987. Iran now has a variety of groups engaged in political activity; some are oriented along ideological or ethnic lines, while others are more akin to professional political parties seeking members and recommending candidates for office. Conservatives consistently thwarted the efforts of reformists during the Khatami era and have consolidated their control on power since President Ahmadi-Nejad's 2005 electoral victory. In the period following the June 2009 presidential election, Iran s already poor human rights record further degenerated. Following the June 13, 2009 announcement of President Ahmadi- Nejad's reelection, hundreds of thousands of citizens took to the streets to protest. Police violently suppressed demonstrations. The official death count was 37, but opposition groups reported approximately 70 individuals died, and human rights organizations suggested as many as 200. In August 2009 the judiciary estimated that authorities detained approximately 4,000 persons. During 2011, authorities continued to suppress periodic opposition protests and continued to arrest numerous political activists, women s rights reformers, minority rights activists, and student activists. Reading 21: The Decline of the Ottoman Empire and the Birth of Modern Turkey (1914-2000 s) THE END OF WORLD WAR I The British began military operations in the Middle East in l914 at the beginning of the war. Egypt was the launching pad" for the Allied forces In the Middle East. By 1916 Sherif Hussein had vowed to help the British against the Ottoman Turks. In December of 1917, British troops under General MHSHS History Dept Page 9

Allenby drove the Ottomans from Jerusalem. The British were in control. In 1918 Prince Faisal and his Arab troops entered Damascus, Syria with Colonel Lawrence. The Ottoman Empire was crumbling fast. German and Turkish forces were meeting defeat on all of the war fronts. On October 13, 1918, the Ottoman Empire signed a treaty with the British ending World War I in the Middle East. The mandate system of control, introduced after World War I, was a means of the newly formed League of Nations, to handle the territories of the loosing side during the war. The idea of a mandate was that the League would give a territory to one of the Allied winners to administer, but not to fully own. They would continue to administer these territories until the League felt that the peoples living there were prepared to rule themselves. At this point, the Allied mandate power would leave, and, the territory would become an independent nation. Britain and France, however, viewed the mandates as a way of keeping control and influence over their strategic regions In the Middle East. THE BIRTH OF MODERN TURKEY Faced with occupation by the Allies in 1918, the Turks resisted strongly. They drove the Greeks and Western Allies out of Turkey. The Turks were helped in this by the Soviet Union. Under the leadership of Mustapha Kemal, the Turks kept their hold of Asia Minor. They continued to hold both sides of the straits. This included Constantinople. For over two years the Turks waged war against Greece, their traditional enemy. Peace did not return until 1922. Under Mustapha Kemal a revolutionary plan was realized. In 1923 the sultanate was done away with. This event marked the birth of the Turkish Republic. As you recall, the Ottoman Empire had been organized according to religious communities. The new Turkish Republic was founded as a national state with the Turkish people sovereign. The people were given the right to vote, and a parliament was set up. The president of the republic was granted strong powers. The creation of the Turkish Republic created difficulties for many Turkish residents. Certain minority groups in Turkey had been persecuted during Ottoman times. One of these groups, the Armenians, had suffered greatly at the hands of the Turks. The persecution began in the late 1800s and culminated in the Armenians' forced deportation in 1915. Hundreds of thousands of Armenians were killed or died as a result of the expulsion. This has been called the first genocide (deliberate, organized mass murder of a racial, cultural, or political group) in the twentieth century. Once in power, the leaders of the new Turkish Republic tried to make the nation mainly Turkish. As a result, about 1.4 million Greeks were forced to move from Turkey to Greece. In exchange, about 400,000 Turks living in Greece were forced to move to Turkey. This exchange caused great hardship for both peoples. It burdened the Greek and Turkish governments with a crippling refugee problem. Greeks who had lived in Asia Minor since the time of the Byzantines were uprooted from their homes. But the forced exchange of peoples did enable the Turkish Republic to become mainly Turkish. RELIGION AND STATE ARE SEPARATED IN THE TURKISH REPUBLIC For the first time in any Muslim country, church and state were separated. The Turkish Republic declared religion a matter of private belief. All religions were to be tolerated. The government was reorganized on secular lines. New laws were written, based on a European model the Swiss Code rather than on the Qur an. For the Islamic world, this alone was a revolutionary change. Mustapha Kemal outlawed polygamy. He urged women to stop wearing veils and called for them to seek public office. He called for his people to wear Western clothes, and he made the use of the Western alphabet the law. Turks who could read and write with the Arabic alphabet now had to learn to do so with the new alphabet. At the same time illiteracy was greatly reduced. Turkey adopted the Western calendar and the metric system. People were required to select a family name for themselves. Kemal himself took the name Atatürk, meaning Father of the Turks. He moved the capital to Ankara, in the center of Asia Minor. Constantinople, the former capital of the Ottoman Empire, was renamed Istanbul. MHSHS History Dept Page 10

Atatürk had mines, railroads, and factories developed for the new republic. Most of these industries were owned by the government. Lands once owned by Greeks were given to landless peasants. Certain businesses were taken over by the government. Railroads and telegraph lines linked the nation. And, while Atatürk accepted aid from the Soviet Union as a means of limiting Western influence, he put down communism. For Atatürk, the Turkish revolution was to be a purely Turkish achievement. And he often used severe methods to achieve his ends. After Atatürk's death in 1938 Turkey shifted several times between democratic and military rule. But the state's planning and the modernization Atatürk had started continued. With United States help after World War II, Turkey successfully fought a Communist takeover. In 1952 Turkey became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). This military alliance includes the United States, Canada, and most of the democratic countries of western and southern Europe. Turkey has allowed U.S. military bases within its borders. With its 700,000 soldiers, Turkey's armed forces are the second largest in NATO. Present-day Turkey faces many problems. One is Turkey's continuing foreign policy dispute with Greece, its neighbor and fellow member of NATO. The dispute is about control of the island nation of Cyprus. Greece and Turkey each supports its own ethnic group in the conflicts between the Greek Cypriot majority and the Turkish Cypriot minority. In 1983 the Motherland Party came into power in free elections. It put an end to military rule, although the military still has considerable influence. In elections at the end of 2002, an Islamic nationalist party, the Justice and Development Party (AKP), had 34 percent of the vote, paving the way to form a single party government. How it will rule Turkey and where it will take the country in the future is unknown. One thing is certain because of its geographic position between Europe and West Asia/Middle East, Turkey has an important role to play in global politics today. Reading 22: OPEC The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a permanent, intergovernmental Organization, created at the Baghdad Conference on September 10 14, 1960, by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. The five Founding Members were later joined by nine other Members: Qatar (1961); Indonesia (1962) suspended its membership from January 2009; Libya (1962); United Arab Emirates (1967); Algeria (1969); Nigeria (1971); Ecuador (1973) suspended its membership from December 1992-October 2007; Angola (2007) and Gabon (1975 1994). OPEC had its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, in the first five years of its existence. This was moved to Vienna, Austria, on September 1, 1965. OPEC's objective is to co-ordinate and unify petroleum policies among Member Countries, in order to secure fair and stable prices for petroleum producers; an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consuming nations; and a fair return on capital to those investing in the industry. The 1960s OPEC s formation by five oil-producing developing countries in Baghdad in September 1960 occurred at a time of transition in the international economic and political landscape, with extensive decolonization and the birth of many new independent states in the developing world. The international oil market was dominated by the Seven Sisters multinational companies and was largely separate from that of the former Soviet Union (FSU) and other centrally planned economies (CPEs). OPEC developed its collective vision, set up its objectives and established its Secretariat, first in Geneva and then, in 1965, in Vienna. It adopted a Declaratory Statement of Petroleum Policy in Member Countries in 1968, which emphasized the inalienable right of all countries to exercise permanent sovereignty over their natural resources in the interest of their national development. Membership grew to ten by 1969. The 1970s MHSHS History Dept Page 11

OPEC rose to international prominence during this decade, as its Member Countries took control of their domestic petroleum industries and acquired a major say in the pricing of crude oil on world markets. On two occasions, oil prices rose steeply in a volatile market, triggered by the Arab oil embargo in 1973 and the outbreak of the Iranian Revolution in 1979. OPEC broadened its mandate with the first Summit of Heads of State and Government in Algiers in 1975, which addressed the plight of the poorer nations and called for a new era of cooperation in international relations, in the interests of world economic development and stability. This led to the establishment of the OPEC Fund for International Development in 1976. Member Countries embarked on ambitious socioeconomic development schemes. Membership grew to 13 by 1975. The 1980s After reaching record levels early in the decade, prices began to weaken, before crashing in 1986, responding to a big oil glut and consumer shift away from this hydrocarbon. OPEC s share of the smaller oil market fell heavily and its total petroleum revenue dropped below a third of earlier peaks, causing severe economic hardship for many Member Countries. Prices rallied in the final part of the decade, but to around half the levels of the early part, and OPEC s share of newly growing world output began to recover. This was supported by OPEC introducing a group production ceiling divided among Member Countries and a Reference Basket for pricing, as well as significant progress with OPEC/non-OPEC dialogue and cooperation, seen as essential for market stability and reasonable prices. Environmental issues emerged on the international energy agenda. The 1990s Prices moved less dramatically than in the 1970s and 1980s, and timely OPEC action reduced the market impact of Middle East hostilities in 1990 91. But excessive volatility and general price weakness dominated the decade, and the South-East Asian economic downturn and mild Northern Hemisphere winter of 1998 99 saw prices back at 1986 levels. However, a solid recovery followed in a more integrated oil market, which was adjusting to the post-soviet world, greater regionalism, globalization, the communications revolution and other high-tech trends. Breakthroughs in producer-consumer dialogue matched continued advances in OPEC/non-OPEC relations. As the United Nations-sponsored climate change negotiations gathered momentum, after the Earth Summit of 1992, OPEC sought fairness, balance and realism in the treatment of oil supply. One country left OPEC, while another suspended its Membership. The 2000s An innovative OPEC oil price band mechanism helped strengthen and stabilize crude prices in the early years of the decade. But a combination of market forces, speculation and other factors transformed the situation in 2004, pushing up prices and increasing volatility in a well-supplied crude market. Oil was used increasingly as an asset class. Prices soared to record levels in mid-2008, before collapsing in the emerging global financial turmoil and economic recession. OPEC became prominent in supporting the oil sector, as part of global efforts to address the economic crisis. OPEC s second and third summits in Caracas and Riyadh in 2000 and 2007 established stable energy markets, sustainable development and the environment as three guiding themes, and it adopted a comprehensive long-term strategy in 2005. One country joined OPEC, another reactivated its Membership and a third suspended it. MHSHS History Dept Page 12

MHSHS History Dept Page 13