Judaism World Religions The Hebrews were a tribe of people from Mesopotamia They believed in one supreme, all-knowing creator, which is called monotheism As God s chosen people, the Hebrews were bound by a covenant which protected them when they abided by it Judaism continued This covenant was revealed to Moses, a leader of the Hebrews, in the Ten Commandments ca. 1300 B.C.E. Ca. 960-920, King Solomon ordered the construction of a great temple to house the Ark of the Covenant The Ark of the Covenant was a sacred container that held the tablets on which the Ten Commandments were written The Temple of Solomon Built in Jerusalem A sacred space meant to house the divine spirit No longer extant, can only gain evidence from the Bible This is a model of what it may have looked like The Jewish Diaspora: Spoils from the Temple of Jerusalem The Hebrew Bible ca. 950-150 B.C.E. The Torah, the five first books, is the oldest section of the Bible, written down sometime after 1000 B.C.E. The Book of Genesis describes God s creation of the world and man The Book of Exodus lays out God s laws, for example, the prohibition against the making and worshipping of images or idols Demonstrates how God is both omnipotent and involved in the destinies of his people
The Hebrew Bible continued The 150 psalms are poems, many of which were composed to be sung at religious services In later books, prophets reveal the message of God to the Hebrew people and urge them to keep the covenant, pointing to instances of God s wrath when they have strayed In 90 C.E., respected rabbis (teachers) select which books will make up the Hebrew Bible The Book of Job Tells the story of Job, whose faith is tested when he loses his wife, family, and possessions and suffers physical torments Job asks why God would allow a blameless believer to suffer such afflictions Shows that goodness does not necessarily receive a reward in this life or after death Honors the ultimate mystery that is God Ancient Hebrew Art and Music Representational art was discouraged because of the commandment against graven images Music had a religious purpose and was used in public worship, called the liturgy. The cantor (chanter) led the congregation in singing the psalms in two ways 1. Responsorial style: congregation answered the cantor s voice 2. Antiphonal style: congregation alternated verses with the cantor Mystery Cults Mystery cults in Egypt, Greece, and Persia celebrate the changes of the seasons and ritualize the cycles of birth, death, and rebirth Initiates receive secret knowledge The cult of the hero-god Mithra gains popularity among soldiers of the Roman military Mithraism proclaims the existence of two forces, good and evil, and promises eternal life for initiates The Rise of Christianity Fresco Christ as Good Shepherd ca. mid 4 th C.E. Roman catacombs
Jesus and the Gospels Many Jewish prophets speak of a Messiah who will deliver the immortal soul from the prison of the body In 63 B.C.E., the Romans gain control over Judea, creating tensions in the Jewish community Jesus, a Jew living in Judea, preaches antimaterialism, pacifism, compassion, and faith that the good person will receive eternal life in the kingdom of heaven Jesus and the Gospels continued The message of Jesus spreads, and he is condemned to death for being a threat to the Roman empire The followers of Jesus, or the apostles, claim that Jesus was resurrected from the grave after his crucifixion, proving he is the Messiah Written by the four evangelists (authors), the Gospels or Good News tell of the miraculous life of Jesus: a prophet, healer and the son of God Paul and the New Testament Apostle Paul writes ten to fourteen of the scriptures that become known as the New Testament Paul affirms that Jesus is the Son of God who died to redeem mankind from their sins Paul brings in converts outside the Jewish tradition Paul emphasizes the importance of faith for salvation Christianity and the Roman World The Romans initially prohibit Christianity and persecute Christians for practicing it Christianity proves compelling to many people because it allows everyone the opportunity for salvation The poor are especially drawn to its message of compassion The Fall of the Roman Empire and Christianity s Rise Attacks by Germanic tribes migrating Westward weakens Roman empire Emperor Diocletian divides the empire into 2 parts, East and West (245-316 C.E.) Emperor Constantine moves the seat of power from Rome to Byzantium (Constantinople) The Edict of Milan is passed in 313 C.E., giving Christianity legitimacy within the Roman Empire Christianity s Rise continued Constantine calls the Council of Nicaea in 325 C.E. where Christian dogma is decided upon: 1. The notion of the Trinity (the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost) 2. The virgin birth of Christ 3. The resurrection of the dead The Western Christian church, called Catholicism, maintains the hierarchical organization of the Roman Empire The Eastern Christian church, called the Greek Orthodox Church, is centered in Constantinople
The Church Fathers: Saint Augustine of Hippo St. Augustine was born in Hippo in North Africa, where he later became the bishop in 354 C.E. He writes two influential books, The City of God and The Confessions, the first autobiography The City of God refutes the charge that Christianity led to the fall of Rome, arguing that the city of man gives way to the city of God (heaven) Creates a linear notion of time rather than a cyclical one Separates physical existence from the spiritual The Monastic Life Cloistered communities of people who vow to live a celibate life devoted to God Monks preserve history and literature Daily routine includes work and prayer Convents offer spaces for women outside of marriage Allegorical View of the World Symbols help Christians identify one another during Roman persecution Early Christian thought borrows from Plato the idea that the material world is an imperfect reflection of the divine Christian art makes use of symbols that point to higher meanings Iconography is the study of the meanings behind these symbols Particular numbers also have allegorical meanings Examples of Symbolism In this depiction: Luke is an ox Matthew is a man Mark is a lion John is an eagle Early Christian Architecture Old Saint Peter s Basilica, Rome Fourth Century C.E. Hierarchical use of space, moving from west to east or sinfulness to salvation Created a Latin cross formation Byzantine World The Eastern Roman empire became known as the Byzantine Empire Emperor Justinian revises the Roman Law in what has been called the Code of Justinian Greek Orthodox style churches built during his reign Ravenna, the western outpost of Justinian s empire, site of churches which still exhibit stunning mosaics
Hagia Sophia: Holy Wisdom 532-537 C.E. Domed building Minarets added when Ottomon Turks converted it into an Islamic mosque Situated overlooking the Bosporus Mosaics of Ravenna ca. 547 C.E. Depict religious imagery as well as portraits of Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora Part of Justinian s unsuccessful attempt to reunite the two halves of the empire Conflict over Icons Icons, images of Jesus, God, Mary, and the saints, are believed by Roman Catholics to inspire reverence Eastern Orthodox Church members who condemn the use of icons because they are like idols are called iconoclasts Byzantine iconoclasts destroy religious images Schism between the Eastern and Western Church results Gregorian Chants Sung a cappella (no musical accompaniment) Sung by clergy or monks for liturgical purposes Monophonic (single melodic line) Either responsorial or antiphonal Rhythm of words determine rhythm of music Similar to Hebrew liturgical music Islam Islam The Prophet s Mosque at Medina Muhammad, an Arab, is visited by the Angel Gabriel and becomes Allah s final prophet Muhammad preaches submission to God s will Five pillars of Islam are established After leaving his birthplace of Mecca for Medina in 622 C.E. (the beginning of the Muslim calendar), Muhammad returns triumphantly to Mecca By 632 C.E., the entire Arabian peninsula is united by the Islamic faith
Islam Continued After Muhammad s death, there is a split that results when Muslims disagree as to who should be the caliphs or leaders of the religion Muslim empire expands to include most of Spain, Persia, Egypt, and Northern Africa by ca. 750 C.E. Muslim traders dominate trade routes from West Africa through Asia into China First Damascus and then Baghdad serve as centers of Muslim world Five Pillars of Islam Confession of faith, There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of God Prayers five times daily while facing Mecca Charitable contributions to poor and needy Fasting from dawn to sunset during the month of Ramadan Pilgrimage to Mecca at least once a lifetime The Quran The Quran was revealed to Muhammad and written down by his disciples It is the holy book of Islam Along with the Hadith, the Quran provides the ethical code of Muslims, known as sharia Sunni Believe that the religious rulers should be chosen by the faithful Make up the majority of Muslims Their imams (prayer leaders) interpretations of sharia may be nonbinding, and imams are not infallible Shia Believe the religious rulers should be direct descendents of Ali (Muhammad s cousin and Fatimah s husband) Make up the minority of Muslims Believe their imams are infallible and are inerrant interpreters of the Islamic law and tradition Islamic Mosques A large columned hall where Muslims pray Mosques are always oriented towards Mecca The Great Mosque at Córdoba Spain 784-987 C.E. Condemns imagery that leads to worship of idols Calligraphic motifs Meander and frame style demonstrates unity and variety Use of arabesques Ornamentation found on carpets, manuscripts, ceramics, textiles Islamic Art
Islamic Music Buddhism Five times a day the muezzins call the faithful to prayer, often from minarets Arabic poetic writing combines with Persian influences and interest in Ancient Greek treatises on music The ud, or lute, is a prominent instrument Buddhism Siddhartha Gutama, a member of the princely Hindu caste (born in the 6 th or 5 th Century B.C.E.), becomes aware of human suffering caused by old age, sickness, and death He searches for enlightenment, first by becoming an ascetic and then by meditating under a bo tree After meditating he realizes that desire and attachment to material things is the cause of suffering Becomes known as the Buddha (enlightened one) Buddhism continued Buddha rejected divinities of any kind believing each person can find their own salvation Buddhism spreads from India into China, Japan, and Southeast Asia As it travels, Buddhism is adapted to the culture in which it is found The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path 1. Pain is universal 2. Desire causes all pain 3. Ceasing desire relieves pain 4. Right conduct provides escape from pain The Eightfold Path is the way to end suffering: right views, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration Buddhism is practical in that the person must put these into practice in everyday life in order to attain a higher level of existence, nirvana Discussion Questions 1. Why do you think so many of these world religions have a problematic relationship to icons? 2. What are some similarities you see between Christianity, Islam, and Judaism? 3. What are some differences you see between Islam, Judaism, and Christianity? 4. What are some reasons Romans became receptive to Christianity? 5. What was the purpose of art (beauty) for early Christians and Muslims?