A. ADJECTIVE (RELATIVE) CLAUSE An adjective clause is a dependent clause which is used to describe and modify nouns. There are basically two kinds of adjective clauses: defining and non-defining. I. That, Who, Whom, Which, Whose In Defining Relative Clauses You use defining relative clauses to say exactly which person or thing you are talking about. Defining relative clauses are usually introduced by a relative pronoun such as that which, who, whom, or whose. A defining relative clause comes immediately after a noun, and needs a main clause to make a complete sentence. You use defining relative clauses to give information that helps to identify the person or thing you are talking about. The relative pronouns that, which, who, and whose + N can be both in the subject position and in the object position. Whom is used only in the object position. 1. Relative pronouns in the subject position a. He is the man that/who bought my house. b. The car which / that crashed into me belonged to Paul. c. The woman whose hair is long and curly is my brother s ex-wife. 2. Relative pronouns in the object position a. The children enjoyed the tale (that/which) their grandmother told. b. The man (who / whom / that) you met yesterday was my brother. c. The student whose paper the teacher praised was congratulated by his friends. Note : Who, which, whom, and that used in the object position in defining clauses can be omitted. II. Who, Whom, Which, And Whose In Non-Defining Relative Clauses You use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing you are talking about. They are specifically used in the following cases: 1. When the antecedent (= the noun phrase that the relative pronoun is used for) has been previously identified: J. Robert Oppenheimer met some brilliant scientists in Germany and England. These scientists, who would later feature prominently in his life, included Edward Teller and Leo Szilar. 2. When the antecedent is a proper noun: Istanbul, which is the biggest city in Turkey, is a place where the East meets the West. 3. When the antecedent is one -of- a -kind noun: The sun, which gives us light, is a big star. Page 1 / 14
Non-defining relative clauses must be introduced by a relative pronoun such as 'which', who', 'whom', or 'whose'. A non-defining relative clause comes immediately after a noun and needs a main clause to make a complete sentence. SPECIAL NOTE 1. Note that in written English, a non-defining relative clause is separated from the main clause by a comma or commas whichever is appropriate. a. I went to the cinema with Mary, who I think you met. b. Neil Armstrong, who is the first man to set foot on the moon, is known by everybody. 2. You can also use a non-defining relative clause beginning with which to say something about the whole situation described in a main clause. a. I never met Mr. Özdemir again, which was a pity. b. She was a little tense, which was understandable. c. Small computers need only small amounts of power, which means that they will run on small batteries. 3. You do not use that in non-defining relative clauses. Exercise - 1 Join the sentences below using who, whom, whose, or which, putting commas where necessary. Make sure that relative clause goes next to the word it gives extra information about. 1. I met Jane s father. He works at the university. I met Jane s father, who works at the university. 2. Peter is studying French and German. He has never been abroad. Peter, who has never been abroad, is studying French and German. 3. She is the novelist. Her book won first prize. 4. Michael Wood is one of my oldest friends. He has just gone to live in Canada. 5. Manchester is in the northwest. It is one of England s fastest growing towns. 6. This is David. We stayed in David s house for our holidays. Exercise - 2 In the following sentences, add commas where necessary and change the adjective clause pronoun to that if possible. 1. The geologist who lectured last night predicted another earthquake. 2. The pizza which we had for lunch yesterday was very good. 3. Rice which is grown in many countries is an important food throughout much of the world. 4. The students who didn t come to class yesterday explained their absence to the teacher. 5. The elephant which is the earth s largest land mammal has few natural enemies other than human beings. 6. One of the elephants which we saw at the zoo had only one tusk. Page 2 / 14
III. Where, When and Why In Defining Relative Clauses You can use when, where, and why in defining relative clauses after certain nouns. You use when after time or time words such as day or year. You use where after place or place words such as room or street. You use why after reason There had been a time when she hated all men. This is the year when profits should increase. He showed me the place where they work. That was the room where I did my homework... There are several reasons why I can t do that. I know the reason why he decided to study at METU Note : Defining relative clauses that modify a place, a time or reason can also be used as in the following sentences. 1. I don t remember the day. She came on that day. I don t remember the day which she came on. I don t remember the day on which she came I don t remember the day when she came I don t remember the day that she came. I don t remember the day she came. 2. The reason is unknown. Jane left home because of this reason. The reason why Jane left home is unknown. The reason Jane left home is unknown. 3. The restaurant was cheap. We ate fish in that restaurant. The restaurant which we ate fish in was cheap. The restaurant in which we ate fish was cheap. The restaurant where we ate fish was cheap. The restaurant that we ate fish in was cheap. The restaurant we ate fish in was cheap. IV. When and Where In Non-Defining Relative Clauses You can use when and where in non-defining relative clauses after expressions of time or place. This happened in 1957, when I was still a baby. She has just come back from a holiday in Crete, where Alex and I went last year. Notes : 1. You can replace when or where by which, adding an appropriate preposition to the relative clause. For example: He arrived last Monday, when / on which I was sick. METU, where / at which he studies, is an English-medium university. 2. You cannot replace when or where with that. 3. You cannot use non-defining relative clauses without any relative pronoun, which is possible in defining clauses. The only alternatives are those given above in 1. Page 3 / 14
Exercise - 3 Complete these sentences by adding when, where, or why and putting commas where necessary. Then check to see if there are other ways to rewrite the relative clauses. 1. This is definitely the place where I left it. 2. Do you remember the time we got lost? 3. There must be a good reason he s late. 4. Sheila quit the job last June, she had an operation. 5. They are building a hospital on the street we live. 6. I d love to go to Paris, I can visit several museums, theaters and cafes. V. Quantity Words + Of Which / Whom / Whose In Non-Defining Relative Clauses When you talk about a group of people or things and want to add some extra information regarding all, none or a part of them, you can use the following expressions. Many/some/both whose Most/a few/all of which None/two-three whom Examples a. They were all friends, many of whom had known each other for years. b. He talked about several very interesting people, some of whom he was still in contact with. c. I did physics exercises, all of which were quite difficult. d. He has two daughters, both of whom are married. e. Yaşar Kemal, several of whose books have been translated into many languages, is an internationally recognized Turkish author. Exercise 4 Rewrite these sentences using phrases with of which or of whom or of whose. e.g. I got four books for my birthday. I had read three of them before. I got four books for my birthday, three of which I had read before. 1. I was attacked by two men. I had met neither of them before. 2. He had a lot to say about his new computer. None of it interested me very much. 3. There were some noisy people in the audience. One of them kept interrupting the speaker. 4. She made all kinds of suggestions. I couldn t understand most of them. 5. The man was very happy. Both of his children survived the air crash. Page 4 / 14
VI. The Position Of Prepositions In Relative Clauses 1. She is the woman. I told you about her. a) She is the woman about whom I told you. b) She is the woman who(m) I told you about. c) She is the woman that I told you about. d) She is the woman I told you about. 2. The music was good. We listened to it last night. e) The music to which we listened last night was good. f) The music which we listened to last night was good. g) The music that we listened to last night was good. h) The music we listened to last night was good. In very formal English, the preposition comes at the beginning of the adjective clause, as in (a) and (e). Usually, however, in everyday usage, the preposition comes after the subject and verb of the adjective clause, as in the examples. Note : If the preposition comes at the beginning of the adjective clause, only whom or which may be used. A preposition is never immediately followed by that or who. Exercise - 5 Join the following sentences as in the example. e.g. The house is on the corner. Mr. Wilson lives in it. a. The house in which Mr. Wilson lives is on the corner. b. The house that Mr. Wilson lives in is on the corner. c. The house Mr. Wilson lives in is on the corner. 1. Here s the book. You and I were talking about it yesterday. 2. The speaker mentioned that matter. We listened to the speaker. 3. I am grateful to the man. I borrowed some money from him. 4. This is a particularly difficult exercise. The students might have trouble with it. 5. You are reading short stories and plays. You will be able to improve and expand your vocabulary through them. 6. It was a shocking experience to discover she had ruined the map. I had spent so much time on it. Page 5 / 14
VII. Reduction of Relative Clauses Full clauses Those who want to join the trip... The mystery which surrounds this incident... The house that is painted / was painted / has (had) been painted... The car which is / was being repaired. She is the first / second / last / oldest / only woman who won the Nobel Prize for literature. John failed his exam, which greatly disappointed his parents. Reduced Clauses Those wanting to join the trip... The mystery surrounding this incident... The house painted... The car being repaired. She is the first / second / last / oldest / only woman to win the Nobel Prize for literature. John failed his exam, greatly disappointing his parents. SPECIAL NOTE In non-defining relative clauses, the reduced clause may be used before the main clause : Examples 1.a. Tarsus, which is located between Adana and Mersin, is the place where St Paul lived. 1.b. Tarsus, located between Adana and Mersin, is the place where St Paul lived. 1.c. Located between Adana and Mersin, Tarsus is the place where St Paul lived. 2.a. Charles Lindbergh, who was the first person who flew across the Atlantic alone, is regarded as one of the pioneers of aviation. 2.b. Charles Lindbergh, the first person to fly across the Atlantic alone, is regarded as one of the pioneers of aviation. 2.c. The first person to fly across the Atlantic alone, Charles Lindbergh is regarded as one of the pioneers of aviation. 3.a. Ankara, which is the capital of Turkey, is located in Central Anatolia. 3.b. Ankara, the capital of Turkey, is located in Central Anatolia. 3.c. The capital of Turkey, Ankara is located in Central Anatolia. Exercise - 6 Rewrite the following sentences using the short forms of adjective clauses. 1. The fence which surrounds our house is made of wood. 2. This book, which is available in all major book shops, is a best seller. 3. Ara Güler s photographs, which were published in the newspaper, were extraordinary. 4. The Bosphorus Bridge, which was built in 1973, is the fourth longest suspension bridge in the world. 5. The issue which is being discussed at the moment concerns all of us. 6. Michael was the first student who reacted to the new teacher s strict rules. 7. I come from a city that is located in the southern part of the country. 8. Psychologists who study the nature of sleep have made important discoveries. Page 6 / 14
VIII. Cleft Sentences (Relative Clauses Used For Emphasis) When a certain word or phrase (usually a noun or a pronoun) in a statement needs to be emphasized, or if the points is to be made more strongly, the structure on the right hand column can be used. It is this complexity that man can now interfere with. It is your brother who started the fight. It is money that we need. It is Jack who is to blame. Exercise - 7 Change the following sentences as in the example. (Do not change the original meaning) e.g. Helen met Jack in London last summer. It was Helen who met Jack in London last summer. It was Jack who(m) Helen met in London last summer. It was in London that Helen met Jack last summer. It was last summer that Helen met Jack in London. 1. DNA carries the genetic code. It is DNA It is the genetic code 2. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928. It was Alexander Fleming It was penicillin It was in 1928 Page 7 / 14
B. NOUN CLAUSE A noun clause is a dependent clause which is used in the same way as a noun or noun phrase. Noun clauses may function as object, or subject of a sentence as well as subject complement, adjective complement, appositive, and object of a preposition. Study the following noun/adjective phrases and noun clauses. FUNCTION NOUN/ ADJ. PHRASE NOUN CLAUSE Object a. We believe in his honesty. b. I didn t understand his words. a. We believe (that) he is honest. b. I didn t understand what he said. Subject Adjective Complement Appositive (Used for Explanation) Object of a preposition c. I know her name. a. His failure surprised me. b. The winner of the race will receive a prize. c. His response is unpredictable. d. Their sincerity is questionable. She is certain of success. One problem, his incompetence, will be hard to deal with. a. I was worried about his health. b. Everything depends on his graduation from the university. c. I know what her name is. a. (The fact) That he failed surprised me. b. Whoever wins the race will receive a prize. c. How he will respond is unpredictable. d. Whether they are sincere is questionable. She is certain (that) she will succeed. One problem, that he is incompetent, will be hard to deal with. a. I was worried about how ill he was. b. Everything depends on whether he will be able to graduate from the university (or not). I. Noun Clauses Derived From Statements We use that to form noun clauses from statements. 1. Position of That-clauses a. That clauses are used after: - some verbs : I know (that) she s going to be late. The problem is that he is going to be late. - some adjectives: It s obvious that he is going to be late. - some nouns : It s a pity that he s going to be late. b. A that-clause can also start a sentence, in which case it serves as the subject of the sentence. e.g. That he lied to us is unbelievable. Note : THAT cannot be omitted when it introduces a noun clause used as subject of the sentence. However, it can often be omitted after verbs and adjectives. Page 8 / 14
2. Functions Of That-clauses Noun clauses introduced by that have various functions. Study the table below. FUNCTION Object Subject Subject Complement Adjective Complement Appositive THAT CLAUSE Everybody knows (that) the earth is round. That the earth is round is known by everybody. What is known by everybody is that the earth is round. Scientists are confident that the earth is round. The fact that the earth is round is known by everybody 3. Nouns Which Take That-clauses For Explanation Or As Subject Complement Advantage change explanation indication point reason Argument contention fear news possibility rumor Claim fact likelihood opinion prediction trouble Assumption doubt guarantee optimism probability shame Belief evidence idea pity proof view A that-clause either follows these nouns for explanation or serves as subject complement of the sentence after the verb to be. Follow the examples: 1. I don t share your optimism that the new economic measures will bring down inflation. 2. His assumption that the new course material will significantly improve students English is sensible. 3. His assumption is that the new course material will significantly improve students English. 4. Her suggestion that we should design a new program should be taken seriously. 5. Her suggestion is that we should design a new program. 6. My personal opinion is that there is nothing go again from this approach. 7. There is no evidence that he was involved in the bribery scandal. 8. There is no indication that things will improve in the future. Exercise - 1 Complete these sentences with noun clauses. 1. He feels angry. It s not surprising (that) he feels angry. 2. John is feeling better. I m glad 3. He has been dismissed. It s a shame 4. Bill doesn t trust us. It s annoying 5. Computers are essential. It has become obvious 6. She is innocent. We believe Exercise - 2 Form appositive noun clauses as in the examples : 1. He was mistreated. (his claim / has no basis) His claim that he was mistreated has no basis. 2. Money brings happiness. (belief / absurd) The belief that money brings happiness is absurd. Page 9 / 14
3. We can produce petrol from wood. (idea / interesting) 4. My best friend was killed in an accident (news/shocked me) 5. He was late because he missed the bus. (his explanation/sensible) 6. Turkey s Per capita income will reach that of Germany by the year 2020. (your prediction/overly optimistic) II. Noun Clauses Derived From Questions A. Yes/No Questions 1. Formation We can introduce a Yes/No question as a noun clause after if or whether. We use reporting verbs like ask, tell me, want to know, inquire and other verbs like investigate, wonder, find out, don t know, remain to be seen, depend on etc. It should be noted that the word order changes back to subject + verb and we don t use a question mark to form indirect questions from direct questions as in reported or indirect speech: Examples 1a Has he signed the contract? We don t know this. 1b. We don t know whether (if) he has signed the contract (or not) 1c. We don t know whether or not he has signed the contract. 2a. Can he win the race? I wonder... 2b. I wonder if he can win the race. 2c. I wonder whether he can win the race. 3a. Does John need help? Ask her... 3b. Ask her if/whether John needs help. 2. Functions of Whether Clauses Noun clauses introduced by whether function as : FUNCTION Object Subject Adjective Complement Object of a preposition Subject Complement WHETHER-CLAUSE We don t know whether (if) he really needs money (or not) Whether he really needs money is not known. I m not sure whether he really needs money I have some doubts about whether he really needs money. The question is whether he really needs money. Note : Whether can be replaced by if in object and adjective complement positions. However, it cannot normally be replaced by if in other positions. Page 10 / 14
B. Question word Question (Wh- Clauses) 1. Formation We can introduce a direct question beginning with a question words an indirect question or a noun clause after tell me, ask, inquire, wonder, want to know, find out, remain to be seen etc. The word order changes back to subject + verb and we don t use a question mark. In other words, we change a direct question to an indirect question as in the reported speech: Examples When did he sign the contract? I wonder... I wonder when he signed the contract. What did he say? I don t remember it. I don t remember what he said. 2. Functions of Wh-clauses The following table illustrates the functions of Wh-clauses. Object Subject FUNCTION Adjective Complement Object of a preposition Subject Complement WH-CLAUSE how much money he needs. You know what he need why he needs money When he was born How long he stayed in England does not concern me. Where he lives now It s not clear I m interested in The question is what he really means. why he did such a thing when he intends to resign. how he managed to secure credit. what else he has got to say. how long the project will last. what happened to him. Exercise - 3 Complete these sentences with noun clauses. 1. Why did he leave early? He didn t tell me 2. What does he intend to do? This should concern you more than anybody else. What 3. Can these problems be solved? The question is 4. Are they determined to pursue this policy? We wonder 5. Where is he hiding? This is not known. Where 6. When did the incident take place? This is of crucial importance. When 7. How did he manage to escape from the prison. This remains a mystery. How Page 11 / 14
Exercise - 4 Change the nouns or noun phrases printed in italics to noun clauses. 1. Her reasons for being angry surprised me. 2. He noticed her nervousness. 3. The date of the wedding ceremony will be announced soon. 4. Our discussion was private. 5. I m convinced of his innocence. 6. What worries me is the inadequacy of our food supplies. 7. His reluctance to cooperate with people around him is annoying. 8. A lot depends on his assessment of the situation. Exercise - 5 Combine the following sentences by using a noun clause to replace the underlined nouns, pronouns or phrases. 1. What did she say? I have forgotten it. 2. Can you help us with the painting? We need to know this. 3. Any student who fails this exam will be dismissed. The administration announced this. 4. John said something. Did you hear it? 5. How did Alexander Graham Bell invent the telephone? Does anyone know this? 6. He will succeed. I strongly believe this. 7. Was he involved in the financial scandal? The police will investigate this. 8. How long will he stay in England? Nobody seems to know this. III. Using It As The Subject Of The Sentence If a noun clause in the subject position is moved to end of the sentence the pronoun it is used as an empty subject. Follow the examples: a. That Clauses (The fact) That she married John is surprising. It s surprising that she married John. That he is a liar is a fact. It s a fact that he is a liar. That he will go on a trip with John doesn t concern me. It doesn t concern me that he will go on a trip with John. Page 12 / 14
b. Whether clauses Whether they have accomplished the mission is unknown. It is unknown whether (if) they have accomplished the mission. c. Question Word Clauses How he obtained those files is being investigated. It is being investigated how he obtained those files. Exercise 6 Complete the following sentences by adding noun clauses in subject position. Begin the noun clauses with the words given, and use the questions as a guide to form the noun clause. 1. How old was the girl when the incident in the supermarket happened? How old the girl was when the incident happened was not mentioned. 2. Did the child misbehave in the supermarket? Yes, probably, but how was not discussed. 3. What did the mother tell the child on the way home? What was that she was no good. 4. Did the mother have any knowledge of the child s fantasy? Whether was not clearly explained. 5. What did the child imagine the angry mother to be? What was an evil Martian. Exercise 7 Rewrite the following sentences starting with it if possible. Example That we need much more practice in English is clear. It is clear that we need much more practice in English. 1. That he should fail to conduct the investigation seems very strange. 2. Whoever lived through that period will never forget that event. 3. How the company should promote the new product has not been decided yet. 4. The fact that there may be life on other planets is now generally accepted. 5. Why she decided to invest in an unstable currency is a mystery to me. 6. That the water has become polluted is a matter of grave concern. Page 13 / 14
IV. Reduction of Noun Clauses Note how the following noun clauses can be reduced to infinitive and gerund phrases. NOUN CLAUSE REDUCED CLAUSE It s essential that she change her job. I m glad that I have been selected. He s happy that he is here I believe that he is honest. We don t know what we have to do. She doesn t know when she should leave. Could you tell me how I can get to the station? My mother told me where I could find second hand books. I can t decide whether I should change my plan or stick to it. He denied that he had stolen the money. She acknowledged that she had made a mistake. It s essential for her to change her job. I m glad to have been selected. He s happy to be here. I believe him to be honest. We don t know what to do. She doesn t know when to leave. Could you tell me how to get to the station? My mother told me where to find second hand books. I can t decide whether to change my plan or (to) stick to it. He denied stealing/having stolen the money She acknowledged having made a mistake. Exercise - 8 Rewrite the following sentences by using infinitives or gerunds. 1. He told me when I should come. ( He told me when to come ) 2. She admitted that she had lied to me. 3. The plumber told me how I could fix the leak in the sink. 4. Please tell me where I should meet you. Page 14 / 14