September 26-- Oct.5 Slave Trades, Slavery and Racism Video: Wonders of Africa Visiting Speaker: Guy Thompson (History & Classics/Sociology)
September 28 [postponed to Oct. 5 because of illness] Slavery and Islam: does Islamic slavery exist?
Wonders of the African World Ummi Hammid, Descendant of Slave Trader On the island of Zanzibar, journalist Ummi Mahsouda Alley Hammid, a direct descendant of notorious black slave trader Tippu Tip, rationalizes that the Arab system of slavery was purely business and that it was different from American slavery. Modern-Day Slavery At a market in Mopti, international merchant Oumar Cisse explains modern-day "slavery" between the Tuareg and Bella peoples in Mali. [from Henry Louis Gates, Jr. http://www.pbs.org/wonders -watch video of each; transcripts can be read under Readings ]
Wonders of the African World Questions raised by contemporary accounts of slavery: both imply this African slavery is different from American slavery why? -Relation of dependency ( he like it ) -Marriage and relations with free men -Payment -Muslim societies (issue of Arabs and blacks ; role of Islam
Islamic Slavery: does it exist? Previous discussion of slave trading in the Muslim world suggested (in some accounts) that Islam advocates slavery and therefore explains both the trade in slaves into, and the institution of slavery in, this Muslim world to what extent is this true? search the Qu ran: (on-line site Islamicity:http://www.islamicity.com/QuranSearch/) Al-Nour (The Light) 24:33 And as for those who are unable to marry, [44] let them live in continence until God grants them sufficiency out of His bounty, And if any of those whom you rightfully possess [45] desire [to obtain] a deed of freedom, write it out for them if you are aware of any good in them: [46] and give them [their share of the wealth of God which He has given you. [47] And do not, in order to gain [48] some of the fleeting pleasures of this worldly life, coerce your [slave] maidens into whoredom if they happen to be desirous of marriage; [49] and if anyone should coerce them, then, verily, after they have been compelled [to submit in their helplessness], God will be much-forgiving, a dispenser of grace!
Slavery in the Qur an [the note one finds if you click on #46, above] Note 146 (Quran Ref: 2:177 ) Ar-raqabah (of which ar-riqab is the plural) denotes, literally, "the neck", and signifies also the whole of a human person. Metonymically, the expression fi 'r-riqab denotes "in the cause of freeing human beings from bondage", and applies to both the ransoming of captives and the freeing of slaves. By including this kind of expenditure within the essential acts of piety, the Qur'an implies that the freeing of people from bondage - and, thus, the abolition of slavery - is one of the social objectives of Islam. At the time of the revelation of the Qur'an, slavery was an established institution throughout the world, and its sudden abolition would have been economically impossible. In order to obviate this difficulty, and at the same time to bring about an eventual abolition of all slavery, the Qur'an ordains in 8:67 that henceforth only captives taken in a just war (jihad) may be kept as slaves. But even with regard to persons enslaved in this or-before the revelation of 8 : 67-in any other way, the Qur'an stresses the great merit inherent in the freeing of slaves, and stipulates it as a means of atonement for various transgressions (see, e.g., 4:92, 5:89, 58:3). In addition, the Prophet emphatically stated on many occasions that, in the sight of God, the unconditional freeing of a human being from bondage is among the most praiseworthy acts which a Muslim could perform. (For a critical discussion and analysis of all the authentic Traditions bearing on this problem, see Nayl al-awtar VI, 199 ff.)(quran Ref: 2:177 )
Slaves and Slavery in the Qur an Al-Baqara (The Cow) 2:177 True piety does not consist in turning your faces towards the east or the west [143] - but truly pious is he who believes in God, and the Last Day; and the angels, and revelation, [144] and the prophets; and spends his substance - however much he himself may cherish - it - upon his near of kin, and the orphans, and the needy, and the wayfarer, [145] and the beggars, and for the freeing of human beings from bondage; [146] and is constant in prayer, and renders the purifying dues; and [truly pious are] they who keep their promises whenever they promise, and are patient in misfortune and hardship and in time of peril: it is they that have proved themselves true, and it is they, they who are conscious of God.
Slavery in the Qur an Al-Nour (The Light 24:33 And as for those who are unable to marry, [44] let them live in continence until God grants them sufficiency out of His bounty, And if any of those whom you rightfully possess [45] desire [to obtain] a deed of freedom, write it out for them if you are aware of any good in them: [46] and give them [their share of the wealth of God which He has given you. [followed by note #47: According to all the authorities, this relates (a) to a moral obligation on the part of the owner to promote the slave s efforts to obtain the necessary revenues by helping him or her to achieve an independent economic status and/or by remitting part of the agreed-upon compensation, and (b) to the obligation of the state treasury (bayt al-mal) to finance the freeing of slaves in accordance with the Quranic principle - enunciated in 9:60 - that the revenues obtained through the obligatory tax called zakah are to be utilized, among other purposes, "for the freeing of human beings from bondage" (fi r-riqab, an expression explained in surah 2 note 146). Hence, Zamakhshari holds that the above clause is addressed not merely to persons owning slaves but to the community as a whole - The expression "the wealth of God" contains an allusion to the principle that "God has bought of the believers their lives and their possessions, promising them paradise in return" (9:111) - implying that all of man s possessions are vested in God, and that man is entitled to no more than their usufruct.(quran Ref: 24:33 )
Slavery in the Qur an And do not, in order to gain [48] some of the fleeting pleasures of this worldly life, coerce your [slave] maidens into whoredom if they happen to be desirous of marriage; [49] and if anyone should coerce them, then, verily, after they have been compelled [to submit in their helplessness], God will be muchforgiving, a dispenser of grace! [followed by note: Lit., "if they desire protection against unchastity (tahassun)", i.e., through marriage (cf. the expression muhsanat as used in 4:24). Most of the classical commentators are of the opinion that the term fatayat ("maidens") denotes here "slave-girls": an assumption which is fully warranted by the context hence, the above verse reiterates the prohibition of concubinage by explicitly describing it as "whoredom" (bigha).(quran Ref: 24:33 )
Slavery in the Qur an An-Nisa (The Women) 4:25 And as for those of you who, owing to circumstances, are not in a position [29] to marry free believing women, [let them marry] believing maidens from among those whom you rightfully possess. [30] And God knows all about your faith; each one of you is an issue of the other. [31] Marry them, then, with their people's leave, and give them their dowers in an equitable manner - they being women who give themselves in honest wedlock, not in fornication, nor as secret love-companions. [32] And when they are married, and thereafter become guilty of immoral conduct, they shall be liable to half the penalty to which free married women are liable. [33] This [permission to marry slave-girls applies] to those of you who fear lest they stumble into evil. [34] But it is for your own good to persevere in patience [and to abstain from such marriages]: and God is much-forgiving, a dispenser of grace. [note 30: In this context, ma malakat aymanukum (lit., "those whom your right hands possess") denotes women who were captured in a holy war and have subsequently embraced Islam. In the above phrase, the pronoun "you" refers to the community as a whole.(quran Ref: 4:25 )
Slavery in the Qur an these examples could be multiplied many times over however, just as many examples can be found in numerous commentaries that would argue the opposite indeed, even using the same surat (eg that if Islam had wished to do away with slavery, it would not have developed laws to regulate it; sex with slave women is advocated and so on) attempting to prove one way or the other through reference to specific texts is no more conclusive than similar exercises with the Bible One can also look to the hadiths (same page if Islamicity): one will find hundreds of references to slave however, one will also find that most simply refer to men in relation to Allah There is also the sharia which further regulates the lawful exercise of slavery None of these in and of itself really permits us to address the question what is Islamic about slavery in Africa and the Middle east at any given moment, and is this what separates the experiences of masters and slaves here, from that of America?
[reference McDougall Islam and Slavery, in Readings ] An idealized construct of master-slave relations lay at the heart of this community. The true believer was abd or the 'slave' of Allah, construed as a loyal, obedient follower, trusting unquestioningly in the power and good will of his 'master'. ' Equality' was what united mankind: all abid were equal in the eyes of Allah. Freedom had no value in a society delineated by the ties of family and tribe. Status and honour were rooted in a myriad of reciprocal responsibilities and closely circumscribed behaviour. To be free of these obligations was to be an outsider, without access to status. To the extent that ' free' had meaning, it was embedded in ethnic identity: to be Arab meant, in large part, to be not a slave. And thus to belong to the Muslim Arab community was, from the outset, an experience defined in contradistinction to slavery.
. Good Muslims had a duty to feed, clothe and educate slaves in Islam Only conversion brought the protection of Islamic law directly (eg the promise of manumission) slaves who did not convert could at best seek a new master Masters should grant slaves the right to marry and assist them in independence [ And if any of those whom you rightfully possess [45] desire [to obtain] a deed of freedom, write it out for them if you are aware of any good in them: [46] and give them [their share of the wealth of God which He has given you. ] The manumission of a slave (or slaves) was frequently prescribed as atonement for misdeeds as a pious act; a master who freed his slaves after his death was a good Muslim Slaves were, nonetheless, property, and were subject to sharia law with respect to purchase and sale, as well as inheritance
. Master-slave sexuality attracts much attention: controversial What is important is to understand context society in transition, problems with poor especially women, frequently forced into prostitution or short-term marriages (then abandoned by husbands), left with children slippage between poor women, prostitutes, slaves sought means to distinguish social status, improve condition of all women onus on males: respect women, limit wives to those you can properly look after, take responsibility for children in terms of master-female slave relations: concubines permitted (better a concubine than a wife you cannot care for); if children produced, should be recognized and raised as free mother umm al-walid should be freed, if not immediately then on death of master (meanwhile occupies higher status and cannot be sold) what is often perceived as giving definition to 'Islamic slavery this attention to sexuality -- was rather an attempt to use slavery to further social reform and ensure family reproduction.
. Sexuality and perceived views of female sexuality did shape nature of maleslave / female mistress relationship adult male slaves not permitted entry to women s quarters (harem), whether in household (middle class, elite who could afford to seclude women or larger court quarters where up to hundreds of female slaves might live, also called harem ) Gave particular importance to young male slaves Most important, provided demand/role for eunuchs Eunuchs not unique to Islamic societies (eg Christian Europe, China) but specific concern about seclusion and sexuality may have been Ironic, castration not condoned within Muslim world: eunuchs made outside of heartland (several places in Sahara/North Africa), highly valued, played important roles in Ottoman empire
. Key question: as Islam spread and (in conjunction with political developments such as the emergence of the Caliphates, ultimately the Ottoman empire) peoples of many cultures, languages and religions were absorbed, how did concepts and practices of slavery evolve? Problem with simply looking at texts (even those as revered as the Qur an, the hadiths, the Sharia) is that the same problems we can identify with interpretation were problems people have shared over the centuries: it is how people lived out their understanding of slavery in particular places at particular moments in time that matters Clear that by c.1500, dynamics of spread of Islam through war, trade and cultural attraction, difficulties of building bureaucracies, intersected with rise of international commercial capitalism so-called Age of Discovery, producing significant changes in practices of slavery Range of new questions about and challenges to earlier morality of slavery emerged
. Establishment of Islamic states: secluded court life, central administration, state bureaucracy (including taxation), military, ulamma (religious advisors ) implications for slaves and slavery? courts became epitome of proper Islamic domestic life (similar for Songhay, Kano, Kanem-Bornu, Ottomans) reflected in behaviour and architecture [see Nast, link to Harem in Readings ] centrality of paternity (key to patrilineal society) exaggerated as power associated with patriarch (sultan) increased provision of limited number of wives (4) and responsibilities to each (and to keep each equally) complemented by unrestricted access to concubines (as long as they are slaves)
. Establishment of Islamic states: secluded court life, central administration, state bureaucracy (including taxation), military, ulamma (religious advisors ) implications for slaves and slavery? kept in separate quarters (wives in one, concubines in another) latter numbered in the hundreds taking of concubines (in war, purchase, tribute) means of consolidating increasingly expanding kingdoms children immediately absorbed into royal household over time, also provide children, administrators with wives all loyal to sultan/king; often favoured concubine became wife (eg Suleiman the magnificent ) among Ottomans most Queen Mothers were concubines by birth [see again Nast and also Toledano, in Readings ]
Zanzibar: the court of Al Bu-Said Dynasty (19 th c) Son, born of Circassian mother Another son*, born of Ethiopian secondary wife And yet another, also by an Ethiopian mother Sayyid Said (founder of Zanzibar Empire) *Sultan Barghash bin Said: Agreed to close the slave markets, outlaw the transport of slaves over water, prohibit the ownership of slaves by Indians, and to grant his protection to those freed, in treaties with the British on 5th June 1873 and 14th July 1875. He issued decrees prohibiting slave caravans from the interior to, and along the coast in 1878
. Establishment of Islamic states: secluded court life, central administration, state bureaucracy (including taxation), military, ulamma (religious advisors ) implications for slaves and slavery? role for eunuchs increased accordingly, known to have been used throughout palace (from Songhay to Ottomans source for Kano thought to have been Songhay) Also tied to concern for control over paternity and loyalty: eunuchs knew no competing loyalties, nor could they produce them perfect for court administrators, provincial bureaucracies, trusted positions (eg treasurer, military commanders) Male slaves could also fulfill some of these roles (especially administration and military) from 8 th century use of mamluk (slave soldier and administrator) Mamluks could be freed and still retain loyalty; over time however, became class unto themselves (similar to Janissaries in Ottoman regime) by early 16 th century challenged Ottoman power -- defeated
Devshirme: on the left 17 th c. European depiction; on the right, 16 th c. Ottoman miniature style
Black Eunuchs in the Ottoman Court
Contrasting lives: household slaves among the elite dockworkers, Istanbul
Domestic Black Slaves in the women s world (Hamam and Harem)
[From Stilwell, Honour, Power and Slavery ]
[excerpt from Stilwell Honour, Power and Slavery ]
Mamluks in Egypt continued to reproduce power through slave purchases, retained slave identity to define ruling (as opposed to ruled ) classes Ottomans developed devshirme (kul) system to supplement slaves purchased or captured in war: children of Christians taken, raised as muslims trained as soldiers and administrators (janissaries); by 17 th century given right to marry and inherit property, work in urban professions ultimately challenged sultans authority various classes of slaves emerged, including those who became viziers and took charge of other slaves (saw similar developments in Kano) Raises question of who was really a slave? Or what really defined your social role your status of birth or the class you came to occupy? [Toledano deals specifically with this elite court slavery having to do with both kul and harem ; see also Stilwell and Nast]
Issues emerging: just supporting Islamic courts/states/bureaucracies required massive investment in food production, raising of animals (especially those used in war) need for labour [readings on West African Empires, Nast, Ottoman Slavery in Readings ] original intimacy implied between master and slave lost as slaves employed in the hundreds, even thousands in roles as labourers, weavers, domestic workers (cooks, washers, cleaners) in much of Muslim world, towns and urban life becoming more central new roles for slaves in guilds, producing products for commerce (foodstuffs, cloth, carpets etc) as direct mutual responsibility master-slave declined, new forms slave relations developed (agricultural slave villages, independent slave families remunerating payment in kind or cash)
Issues emerging: as slaves entered Muslim markets from places unknown but where Muslim states existed (eg West Africa), how was one to know if a slave was a lawful purchase or not? Given that masters had the right to children of slaves (patrilineality), how was paternity to be guaranteed in case of sale? the devshirme system evoked much scholarly debate: if forced conversion was against Islamic principles, how could the inscription of christian children be legal? When the sultan of Morocco conscripted blacks into his army in the 17 th century, how could he be sure some were not freed slaves (and if they were, he had no right to treat them as slaves)? These and many other issues tackled by learned scholars and ulamma throughout Muslim world (eg. Al-Maghili in Songhay and Kano)
What is Islamic about slavery in Muslim Societies? - issues around sexuality and seclusion - issues related to the actual spread of Islam - issues deriving from the demands of establishing an Islamic state - the role of a religious community in regulating the institution All true to varying degrees depending on where and when Readings: [see in particular] Ottoman Slavery (includes map of 19th c. trade routes) "Ottoman concepts of Slavery" [Ehud Toledano] "The Nineteenth Century and After" and "Abolition" [Bernard Lewis] "West African Empires c.1500 and Slavery" [M Tymowski,Nast] "Islam, Gender and slavery in West Africa c.1500" [Heidi J. Nast ] "Ideology of Slavery, Kano (19th c)" [Sean Stilwell]
Key influence in 19th 20th century: European Abolition and Colonialism slave trading and slavery in Africa and Middle East subject to same European abolitionist forces (mostly British but also French) issues around orientalist perspectives: was Islamic slavery different from American slavery? Process of defining how abolition was to be applied shaped perceptions of slavery both within and outside of Muslim world [eg Toledano] application of Atlantic discourse focused attention on trade rather than institution: agreements signed tended to shift trade routes/markets rather than abolish traffic combination rising demand for agricultural produce, oils plus effective ending Atlantic trade increased use of slaves in Muslim Africa (West and East), gave new impetus to trade out of East Africa, fed so-called elite and domestic slavery
Colonialism: European concept of Islamic Slavery conditioned colonial policies supported domestic slavery, tended to leave women and children (in particular) tied to men and households (both royal and ordinary ) eg Kano, Zanzibar, Middle East in general in West Africa, promised not to interfere with culture associated with religion because of way in which Islam was linked with slavery, by implication meant slavery largely left alone changes that did occur often due more to changing economy (taxation demands, commercial opportunities) than colonial law or policy women experienced colonialism differently than men ambiguous status of some slaves continued Islam continued to be the discourse referenced both by colonizers and colonized even as reality changed turning a blind eye to status suited masters and colonizers (eg army, conscripts, forced labour) continuing alliance to masters families also suited slaves/former slaves
Legacies: Vary widely no single story to tell (in spite of rhetoric that would subsume contemporary situation to one or race and/or religion) story of Hamody and Mauritania [see Living the legacy of slavery ; Peace Corps responses on Slavery ] story of Fatma Barka [see A sense of Self ] story of Kano Slave [see Honour, Power and Shame interview] story of Rashid bin-hassani [excerpt in readings his colonial experience; full story available in photo-copy]