Methods of Enquiry Glossary This glossary is a basic introduction to some of the words we commonly use in Methods of Enquiry (MoE) as we mean them in this module. You might find them used in different ways in other sources, but this glossary provides definitions that we had in mind in putting the MoE course together. Remember however that this is basic, and if you want to do well on the module you will need to use the lectures, tutorials, textbook and other sources to build up your knowledge. The words highlighted in light blue are hyperlinked to other definitions in the glossary, so simply press Ctrl and left click to follow the links or just click if you are using a mac. These sections are arranged (more or less) like the research onions. Critical A critical approach involves a careful, exact evaluation and judgment of the material, identifying both weaknesses and strengths, i.e. critiquing. This is not the same as criticising something. A good example would be her critical evaluation of the Wallendorf and Arnould paper suggested that, although the paper was very long and that the data collected by the students may not be highly reliable, it was a good example of using data and researcher 1
Triangulation Critique If you critique something, you use a Critical approach. Paradigm A paradigm is a world view the philosophical or theoretical framework through which we see the world. The only point where we do not have a world view is when we are new born and are yet to learn anything any facts, any rules, any ways of thinking or indeed anything that colours how we view the world. These world views are based upon different Ontology and Epistemology assumptions. In MoE, we use Burrell and Morgan s paradigm matrix (see diagram) so Positivism/Positivist/Functionalism, iinterpretivism/interpretivist and the critical approaches of Radical humanis and Critical approaches Subjective In MOE we group Radical structuralism and Radical humanism into one Critical paradigms lecture. These both use Marxism as their basis, so aim for Emancipation, but differ in their stance toward Objective and Subjective. Radical humanism Interpretivism Radical change Regulation Radical structuralism Functionalism Radical structuralis are the main paradigms we look at. These are suggested as the ways that social researchers see the world and because it is impossible to hold two different world views at the same time, paradigms are Incommensurability. For instance, one simply cannot be Objective and Subjective at the same time and one cannot believe there is one single reality to be discovered and that there are multiple realities constructed through interaction and understanding between individuals. Thomas Kuhn suggested that paradigm shifts occur when an old paradigm is replaced by a new paradigm through scientific revolution, and that multiple paradigms characterise immature sciences. Incommensurability Paradigms are incommensurable because different paradigms are based on different assumptions, for instance about which scientific methods result in valid scientific knowledge, and even about the nature of reality. Different paradigms have no common rules, language, units of measurement or theories so one cannot communicate between them or use them together. This makes it impossible to compare paradigms in a meaningful way. Objective 2
For instance, Positivism/Positivists see the world in a fundamentally different way to Interpretivism/Interpretivists. One cannot be both positivist and interpretivist and this can apply to other paradigms too. This idea was suggested by Paul Feyerabend in 1952. Ontology The investigation into what types of things there are in the world i.e. the nature of reality. Is this there one single reality waiting to be discovered, as Positivism/Positivists believe? This is objectivism, i.e. taking an Objective view of the world. Or do we construct reality through social interaction? This is being Subjective, or using Constructivism. Objectivism, subjectivism and constructivism are all ontologies. Objective An objective approach seeks to describe a phenomenon without bias, judgement or values. A truly objective stance allows us to see phenomena as they really are, unclouded by perception. This is a central tenet of Positivism/Positivist, and is an ontological stance. Subjective A subjective stance accepts that each individual s view of the world is subject to bias, judgement or values that result from what we know, think and believe. Therefore each person s view of the world will be slightly different, and we must acknowledge this when we analyse and communicate research, resulting in a reflective approach. This is a central tenet of Interpretivism/Interpretivist and is an ontological stance. Realism Realism is sometimes used as an Ontology, based on being Objective, which argues that Empirical data reveals the reality to us, which is waiting to be discovered and is common to all of us (also known as naïve realism). Critical realism Critical realism is also sometimes used as an Ontology that goes a step further than naïve Error! Reference source not found., accepting that while some of the things we sense are indeed real, our senses can also sometimes fool us or not reveal the full truth. This allows Metaphysical concepts to be included in a Post-positivism paradigm. Constructivism Constructivism is an Ontology that argues that we construct our idea of reality from our experiences and interactions with others, i.e. based on being Subjective, therefore such knowledge is constructed rather than discovered. Epistemology Epistemology is from the Greek meaning knowledge science and is concerned with the nature of knowledge i.e. what is knowledge, how do we gather it and how do we know what we know? This depends on what the nature of reality is, i.e. Ontology because that affects how we know about reality. In MoE we use the Paradigms as epistemological perspectives. 3
Inductive An inductive approach uses data to generate theory. So data from observation is used to develop themes and patterns (generalisations), which suggest new theory. Sara remembers induction by understanding that this approach is about giving birth to new theory i.e. inducing theory like we induce babies. Inductive research is usually exploratory and therefore Qualitative. Deductive A deductive approach tests existing theory using data. This theory is usually outlined in some kind of literature review at the beginning of the paper, from which Hypothesis are generated, then data is gathered to test the theory. Deductive research is usually Quantitative. Inductive methods Deductive methods THEORIES GENERALIZATIONS HYPOTHESES OBSERVATIONS 4
Positivism/Positivist Positivism is a Paradigm that asserts that the truth is located 'out there' in the real world and simply waits to be discovered i.e. an Object ontology. This one truth allows us to establish universal laws that are Empirical verifiable - because the facts exist independently of any theories or human observation and may be apprehended through strict application of Scientific Method i.e. hypothetico-deductive method (based on the Principle of Falsification). Positivist research involves a Deductive approach. A positivist paper is characterised by numerical data, a literature review, at least one Hypothesis, and the use of statistics to analyse the data for a large, randomly chosen sample i.e. a Quantitative approach. Positivism is also known as Functionalis. Many different forms of positivism exist but the two we cover in the most depth are Logical positivism and Post-positivism Logical positivism Logical positivists believe that authentic knowledge can only based on actual sense experience i.e. what we can see, hear, touch, smell or taste things which can be directly observed. This approach was pioneered by The Vienna Circle in the 1920s and 1930s and is based upon naive Objective An objective approach seeks to describe a phenomenon without bias, judgement or values. A truly objective stance allows us to see phenomena as they really are, unclouded by perception. This is a central tenet of Positivism/Positivist, and is an ontological stance. Subjective A subjective stance accepts that each individual s view of the world is subject to bias, judgement or values that result from what we know, think and believe. Therefore each person s view of the world will be slightly different, and we must acknowledge this when we analyse and communicate research, resulting in a reflective approach. This is a central tenet of Interpretivism/Interpretivist and is an ontological stance. Realism. Post-positivism Post-positivists accept that authentic knowledge not only includes sense data (see Logical positivism) but can also include Metaphysical phenomena which are suggested by scientific evidence and logic. This is based upon a version of Critical realism. Sir Karl Popper contributed the Principle of Falsification as a central idea of post-positivism. Functionalism For MOE, functionalism is the same as Positivism/Positivist. Principle of Falsification 5
Sir Karl Popper s principle of falsification asserts that a Hypothesis can never be proved; only disproved. A typical example is that one could hypothesise that only white swans exist, and find white swans in France, China, Brazil etc. and say that every case helps prove your hypothesis. However, when one visits Australia where black swans occur naturally, finding just one black swan disproves the hypothesis. So no matter how much proof you have you can never be sure your hypothesis is really true, but just one example of disproof is enough to discount a hypothesis. Hypothesis The word hypothesis derives from the Greek for to suppose, and has a number of meanings. It can refer to a proposed explanation for an observed phenomenon, but in MOE we use it to refer to a supposition based upon existing theory e.g. Miller and Shamsie s first hypothesis is that Discrete property-based resources will provide superior financial performance in predictable environments but will not do so in uncertain environments (p.524), which is based upon evidence from Connor (1991), Liebermann & Montgomery (1988) and other authors. Scientific Method requires that a hypothesis can be tested. Scientific Method Scientific method follows a hypothetico-deductive method i.e. Hypothesis testing, seeking to disprove hypotheses based on the Principle of Falsification. Hypotheses that are disproved are discarded, and those that cannot be disproved survive to be tested again and again. These are then the most likely explanations for observed phenomena. Empirical Empirical information is gained through observation, experience, or experiment. Secondary analysis, e.g. meta-analysis, of such data is also empirical. Metaphysical Metaphysics literally takes us beyond (meta-) the physical (-physics) i.e. to subjects that cannot be observed directly but can be hypothesised based on logic, such as Ontology. Some people also define metaphysics as including things whose existence cannot be tested or proven. Reductionism Reductionism is the process of reducing complex concepts down to their constituent elements. For instance, Maslow reduces complex emotional and physiological needs down and compartmentalises them into his Hierarchy of Needs. An analogy is how Descartes saw animals as machines, reducing complex anatomy and physiology to machine-like elements. Reductionism is a characteristic of Positivism/Positivist, and is the opposite of 6
Holism. Operationalisation Operationalisation is the process by which measurable entities are used to represent abstract concepts that need to be converted to something that can be measured for Quantitative research. For instance, Miller & Shamsie use Oscars (Academy Awards) to represent discrete knowledge-based resources. In this case Oscars are proxies for discrete knowledge-based resources i.e. they represent discrete knowledge-based resources but are identical. Proxies Proxies (singular = proxy) are the measurable entities used to represent abstract concepts that impossible to measure directly for Quantitative research. The identification of proxies is part of Operationalisation. The Vienna Circle The Vienna Circle were the group who developed Logical positivism in the 1920s in Vienna. Moritz Schlick, Rudolph Carnap, Otto Neurath, and Ludwig Wittgenstein were all members, and this school of thought eventually developed into the Post-positivism stance that we know today. Interpretivism/Interpretivist Interpretivism is a Paradigm that is based upon a Constructivism point of view, that people construct reality through human interaction, creating understanding and meaning between individuals i.e. a Subjective approach. These understandings and meanings differ between individuals so are relative to each individual; this is known as relativism. Essentially, without human interaction and interpretation, reality as we know it would not exist, and that reality is different for every individual. This is because we each have different knowledge, values and views of the world. This is fundamentally different to Positivism/Positivist. Interpretivist research aims to identify patterns and themes from data to suggest theory i.e. an Inductive approach. Interpretivist papers therefore often feature relatively little preexisting theory and are characterised by rich data such as quotes from interviews or focus groups, usually with a small sample chosen through purposive sampling, i.e. a Qualitative approach. This research is often considered exploratory. Interpretivism is also related to Phenomenology. Phenomenology For MOE, phenomenology is the same as Interpretivism/Interpretivist. Holism Holism asserts that a system cannot be understood by breaking it down into its constituent parts, and is more than the sum of its parts. It is from the Greek word meaning all, entire or 7
total. Therefore in order to understand a system, one must embrace its complexity and seek to know as much as one can about it through gathering rich data i.e. through Qualitative methods. Holism is a characteristic of Interpretivism/Interpretivist and is the opposite of Reductionism. Hermeneutic circle The hermeneutic circle refers to the interaction between the whole text and parts of the text. We cannot understand what the whole text means without understanding the meanings of the words it is made up from, but we also cannot understand the exact meanings of the words unless we see them in the context of the whole text. For instance, in English, the word cat could mean catamaran, cat o nine tails (a whip), a cool cat or a pussy cat. With the whole sentence the cat sat on the mat you d be pretty sure it s the final meaning, but without the word cat the sentence would make no sense. The hermeneutic circle is also used in a different sense by interpretivist researchers, who acknowledge that the social world is already interpreted before the social scientist arrives (Blaikie, 1993). In other words, research is interpretation of interpretation. This is sometimes also called the double hermeneutic. Critical approaches In MOE we group Radical structuralism and Radical humanism into one Critical paradigms lecture. These both use Marxism as their basis, so aim for Emancipation, but differ in their stance toward Objective and Subjective. Radical structuralism This Paradigm takes a radical/critical stance based upon Marxism and an Object view, so is concerned with how issues such as patriarchy, racism or class structure impact upon both the physical and social structure of society, resulting in exploitation of natural, technological and human resources. It uses Gareth Morgan s view of organisations as instruments of domination. Radical humanism This Paradigm takes a radical/critical stance based upon Marxism and a Subjective view, so is concerned with the understandings and meanings constructed between individuals and how these constrain certain groups. It uses Gareth Morgan s view of organisations as psychic prisons and seeks to expose issues such as patriarchy, racism or class structure, which result in coercion and disempowerment, in order to allow individuals to achieve their full potential. Critical theory Critical theory, in the social sciences, combines Marxist thought with other influences such as the work of Sigmund Freud on psychoanalysis. It has an explicitly Emancipation aim, and asserts that, by understanding the often hidden processes and assumptions (i.e. Hegemony) that underpin society we can expose systems that deny certain groups the power or 8
opportunities that are available to other, dominant groups, and achieve freedom and equality for all. Issues related to race, gender and age are often the subject of critical theory. Critical theory emanates from The Frankfurt School in the 1920s and 1930s, but was given momentum by the civil rights and feminist movements of the 1960s. Jurgen Habermas was a key philosopher associated with development of critical theory. Emancipation Emancipation is freedom from constraint. It has been used to describe the abolition of slavery and the granting of votes for women. Hegemony Hegemony is the implicit political, economic, ideological or cultural power exerted by a dominant group over other groups. This is often based on widely accepted and unquestioned ideologies that underpin society, such as patriarchy or class structure. The Frankfurt School The Frankfurt School was a group who combined Marxism thought with other ideas such as Freud s psychoanalysis and Kant s critical philosophy, concepts which eventually developed into Critical theory. They established the Institute for Social Research at the University of Frankfurt am Main. Felix Weil initiated the group, but Max Horkheimer took over as director of the institute in 1930, and Jurgen Habermas in 1964. Marxism Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a German philosopher, political economist, historian, political theorist, sociologist, communist, and revolutionary, credited with being the father of communism. The first line of his most famous work The Communist Manifesto says "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles" and sums up his major contribution to philosophy. He wanted to understand how existing systems of society and capitalism reinforced and reproduced such inequalities, and by exposing them, change them. He believed that revolution was the only means of overcoming such inequalities. Methodology Quantitative and Qualitative research strategies are both methodologies, and refer to the rationale and the philosophical assumptions that underlie a particular study, which is related to Ontology and Epistemology. Methodology is not simply a list of methods. Quantitative Quantitative research usually features large, randomly selected samples that are assumed to be representative of a wider population. Numerical (i.e. quantitative) data is gathered and analysed, often with statistics to decide whether a result is significant or not. This research tends to reduce complicated concepts (Reductionism) down to measurable units by Operationalisation. A quantitative approach is a research Methodology. It is usually used in Deductive research, as part of a Positivism/Positivist approach. 9
Qualitative Qualitative research features small, purposively selected samples (i.e. organisations or individuals chosen specifically for the insight they can offer the researcher). These are investigated in great depth, gathering rich data through Methods such as interviews, focus groups and ethnography. This data is analysed to identify themes and patterns, which are used to suggest theory. A qualitative approach is a research Methodology. It is usually used in Inductive research as part of an Interpretivism/Interpretivist approach. 10
Triangulation Triangulation describes any research process that includes more than one point of view i.e. looking at a question from two or more different angles. This can be done by using a number of different sources of data or researchers or theory, or at the levels of Method, Methodology or Paradigm. The term comes from the process of using more than one bearing to fix the point at which to shoot or the process of using more than one landmark (e.g. a hill, a river and a church) to fix one s position. Either process involves making a triangle where the lines cross is where you are aiming at. In the same way, wherever data, researchers, theory, methods, methodology or paradigms overlap is where the truth is likely to lie. Method Experiments, surveys and numerical analysis of company data are all examples of Quantitative methods. Interviews, focus groups and ethnography are all examples of Qualitative methods. Methods are the specific research techniques used to gather data appropriate to the chosen Methodology. Evaluation There are four lectures in interpreting and evaluating a number of different research methodologies. Evaluating means taking a Critical approach to looking at research, and using the criteria supplied in the lectures to judge what the strengths and weaknesses of the research are. Validity Validity is usually used to evaluate whether Positivism/Positivist research really measures what it claims to be measuring, for instance have the right Methods and Proxies been used. Highly valid research gives us a more accurate picture of what is actually happening. Reliability Reliability is used to evaluate Positivism/Positivist methods, by assessing whether, if the research was carried out in exactly the same way again, it would reach the same conclusions. It is a hallmark of good positivist research that it can be repeated and find the same results, emphasising that such research has little random error, good measuring instruments and consistency of results. 11
Generalisability Results are considered generalisable if they can be extrapolated to a wider population. This is why we use random sampling and large samples in Positivism/Positivist research, so that they sample is as representative of the wider population as possible. Credibility Credibility refers to how believable research conclusions are, based upon common sense and intuition, and is often used to judge Interpretivism/Interpretivist research. For instance, do the themes identified in Wallendorf and Arnould s paper about Thanksgiving ring true to us, and, perhaps more importantly, to people who celebrate Thanksgiving? Authenticity Authenticity judges how well research actually reflects what is happening in the situation under study, and is often used to judge Interpretivism/Interpretivist research. For instance, how good an insight does the paper by Wallendorf and Arnould give us into the rituals of consumption of Thanksgiving in US homes? How close does it get to the actual experience of being an American in this group celebrating Thanksgiving? Plausibility This is a similar idea to Credibility. Academic Journals This section is about the language used in referencing. Journal A journal is a published collection of academic Papers/Articles. Examples include Organization, Strategic Management Journal, Academy of Management Review and Administrative Science Quarterly. Volume Journals are usually divided into volumes: one volume is usually equivalent to one year of that journal. Volumes may be subdivided into Issues. Issue A number of issues are often published per Volume of a jjournal each year. Each issue contains a number of Papers/Articles. Paper A piece of work submitted to an academic Journal and published as one entry in that journal. Papers may be Empirical, theoretical or a literature review. e.g. the articles we use by Miller & Shamsie, Wallendorf & Arnould, Brown & Eisenhardt and Collinson are all papers. 12
Article The same as an academic Volume Journals are usually divided into volumes: one volume is usually equivalent to one year of that journal. Volumes may be subdivided into Issues. Issue A number of issues are often published per Volume of a jjournal each year. Each issue contains a number of Papers/Articles. Paper. Peer-review The process of using other researchers (peers) to review academic papers prior to publication. They make comments on the quality of the work, suggest improvements and tell the Editor whether they think the paper should be published as it is, requires more work (revision), or should be rejected outright. Editor The person in charge of an academic Journal. Reviewer One of the people that the Editor asks to Peer-review academic papers. 13