Chapter 9: Byzantium
Historians refer to the Eastern Christian Roman Empire as Byzantium, employing Constantinople s original name. The Byzantine emperors, did not use the term to define themselves. They called the empire Rome and themselves Romans Byzantium was the Christian buffer against the expansion of Islam into central and northern Europe
Early Byzantine extends from the founding of Constantinople in 324 to the onset of iconoclasm (the destruction of images used in religious worship) in 726 under Leo III. Middle Byzantine period begins with the renunciations of iconoclasm in 843 and ends with the Western Crusaders occupation of Constantinople in 1204. Late Byzantine corresponds to the two centuries after Byzantines recaptured Constantinople in 1261 until its final loss in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks and the conversion of many churches to mosques.
The Empire was born from the split in the Roman world that occurred in the 5 th century, when the Roman Empire become impossible for one ruler to manage. The western half dissolved into barbarian chaos and the eastern half founded by Constantine the Great at Constantinople Culturally different from the Roman cousins, the Byzantines spoke Greek rather than Latin and promoted orthodox Christianity, as opposed to western Christianity, which was centered in Rome
The Orthodox Christian faith spread throughout eastern Europe Iconproduction was their specialty devout Christians attest that icons are images that act as reminders to the faithful By the 8 th century, Byzantines became embroiled in a debate over the icons; some even worshipped them as idols In order to stop this practice, the emperor banned all image production and eliminated previously created works - the result is that art from the early Byzantine period is almost completely lost
The church and state were one in the Byzantine Empire, so that many of the greatest works of art were commissioned by both institutions at the same time A strong court atelier (workshop) develop around a royal household interested in luxury objects specializing in ivory, manuscripts, and precious metals Individual artists worked for the honor and glory of God. They rarely signed their names feeling that pride was a sin. Many monks, priest, or nuns were part of the artistic production
Art historians regard the reign of the emperor Justinian as Byzantium s first golden age, during which the Christian Roman Empire briefly rivaled the old Roman Empire in power and extent
Cue Card 9-2: Saint Michael the Archangel, right leaf of a diptych. Early 6 th century, ivory, British Museum, London The sculptor modeled Saint Michael on a classical winged Victory The archangel seems to float in front of the architecture rather than stand on it. Inscription: Receive these gifts One leaf of an ivory diptych Roman coiffure, classical drapery, facial type Subtle relief folds; body articulated beneath drapery Delicately detailed classical architecture Imperial imagery in the rob and the scepter St. Michael hovers in front of arch, with winds before the columns Spatial ambiguity; feet placed on several steps behind the columns
Cue Card Justinian rides a rearing horse accompanied by personifications of Victory and Earth Above: Christ blesses the emperor Religious and secular masterpiece of political art Artist continued to portray emperors sitting on thrones holding the orb of the earth in their hands, battling foes while riding on mighty horse, and receiving tribute from defeated enemies The dynamic twisting postures of both horse and rider and the motif of the spear thrusting equestrian emperor are familiar motifs in Roman imperial works
Barberini Ivory Compare
Cue Card 9-5 to 9-8: Anthemius of Tralles & Isidorus of Miletus, Hagia Sophia, Constantinpole, (Istanbul), Turkey 532-537
Like the emperors of Old Rome, Justinian was an ambitious builder In Constantinople alone, he build or restored more than 30 churches of the Orthodox faith This was his most important project Combination of centrally planned and axially planned church :Anthemiusof Tralles & Isidorus of Miletus mathematician and physicist (neither man an architect) they began working after a fire destroyed an earlier church Justinian intended to rival all to the churches ever built 270 feet long and 240 wide, dome is 108 feet in diameter, and its 270 feet long and 240 wide, dome is 108 feet in diameter, and its crown rises some 180 feet above the pavement it rivals the architectural wonders of the Rome Pantheon central- plan building and longitudinally orientated basilica -Dome Basilica Exterior: Plain and massive, little decoration
Hagia Sophia interior Light produces a mystic quality halo of light It was the earthly image of the court of Heaven, its light the image of God and God s holy wisdom Pseudo-Dionysius wrote in the Divine Names, Light comes from the good... Light is the visual image of God
Most characteristic features of architecture is the placement of a dome Pendentive dome rests on a second, larger dome, form a ring and four arches whose planes bound a square Squinches arches, corbels, or lintels that bridge the corners of the supporting walls form an octagon inscribed within a square, to achieve even greater height, rest the dome on a cylindrical drum
Altar at end of nave - emphasis placed over the area covered by the dome The feature that distinguishes from other lavishly done buildings like the Roman Pantheon is the special mystical quality of the light flooding the interior, the soaring canopy-like dome dominates the inside as well as the outside - rides on a halo of light from windows in the domes base Dome supported by pendentive Large central dome, with forty windows act as symbolically acting as a halo over the congregation when filled with light Cornice unifies space The nave was reserved for the clergy, not the congregation, the emperor was the only layperson that could enter the sanctuary Arcade decoration: wall and capitals are fat and then but richly ornamented Large fields for mosaic decoration; at one time had forty acres of gold mosaics on walls Many window punctuate wall space Minarets added in Islamic period, when Hagia Sophia functioned as a mosque Walls were whitewashed with plaster; today, walls are being cleaned to reveal wall decorations
9-10 to 9-14: San Vitale Ravenna, Italy Cue Card 526-547 San Vitale died as a martyr at the hands of the Romans in Ravenna in the second century, they built this most spectacular building in northern Italy in his honor. Julianus Argentarius (Julian the Banker) provided a an enormous sum of money (gold coins in excess of 350 pounds) to build it. Not a basilica, centrally planned
9-10 & 9-11: San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy, 526-547 Central plan Cue Card Centrally planned church 2 concentric octagons, dome-covered inner octagon rises above the surrounding octagon to provide the interior with clerestory lighting Eight-sided church Plain exterior except porch added later in Renaissance
9-12: San Vitale mosaic of Christ between two Angels, Saint Vitalis, & Bishop Ecclesius Large windows for illuminating interior designs Interior has then columns and open arched spaces Interior elements dematerialize the mass of the structure The mosaics in the choir and apse must be regarded as one of the greatest achievements of Byzantine art The apse and choir decoration form a unified composition, whose theme is the holy ratification of the emperor Justinian s right to rule, Christ sits on the org of the world at the time of his second coming, on the left appears Justinian, he stands on the Savior s right side, the two are united visually and symbolically by the imperial purple they war and by their haloes, The mosaic program underscores the dual political and religious roles of the Byzantine emperor, the laws of the Church and the laws of the state, united in the laws of God, manifest themselves in the person of the emperor, whose right to rule was God-given Cue Card
9-13: Emperor Justinian and Attendants Cue Card Images and symbols covering the entire sanctuary express the single idea of Christ s redemption of humanity and the reenactment of it in the Eucharist To his left he clergy, to his right the military Dressed in royal purple and gold Artist divided the figures into 3 groups: the emperor and his staff; the clergy; and the imperial guard, bearing a shield with the chi=rho-iota(monogram of Christ) Each group have feet precede (by one foot overlapping) the feet of those who follow Symmetry, frontality, space is uncertain Holds a paten, a shallow bowl or plate, for the Eucharist Slight impression of procession forward; cf. Roman Imperial works Detail
Cue Card The purpose of religious art was to stimulate spiritual seeing - Different than the classical world Theodore of Orleans in 790 said, God is beheld not with the eyes of the flesh but only with the eye of the mind Blue sky has given way to heavenly gold Slight displacement of absolute symmetry with Theodora-she plays a secondary role to her husband Richly robed empress and ladies at court She stands in an architectural framework, holding a chalice for the mass, and is about to go behind the curtain Figures are flattened and weightless, barely a hint of a body can be detected beneath the drapery Three Magi, who bring gifts to the baby Jesus, are depicted on the hem of her dress. This reference draws parallels between Theodora and the
Sant Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna, Italy, 533-549 Cue Card Stark unadorned exterior brickwork echoes the crudeness of the outside world Interior richly decorated symbolizes the soul Housed the body of Saint Appollinaris, who suffered his martyrdom in Classe, Ravenna s port Early Christian in type a basilica with nave and flanking aisle
Hand of God 9-15: Saint Apollinaris amid sheep, apse mosaic. Sant Apollinare, 549, Ravenna, Italy Cue Card Saint Apollinaris, the first bishop of Ravenna, has his hands raised in an orant position, and is dressed in bishop s garb 12 sheep represent the 12 apostles and/or the 12 tribes of Israel and/or parishioners in the church with the bishop as the symbolic leader of his flock Three sheep are the apostles who witnessed Jesus' Transfiguration-the moment when he is revealed divine (Matthew 17:1-8); sheep can also represent the Trinity Moses and Elijah flank the cross, they are Old Testament prophets present at the Transfiguration The hand of God comes down form the clouds to bless the scene Increasing flatness of forms, moving away from classical naturalistic depictions Saint, animals, and plants as flat symbols, lined up side by side, avoiding overlapping, shapes have lost volume
9-16: Transfiguration of Jesus, St. Catherine s, Mount Sinai, Egypt Ca. 548-565 Justinian s builders were rebuilding an important monastery at Mount Sinai in Egypt where Moses received the 10 Commandments from God, now called Saint Catherine s It marks the spot at the foot of the mountain where God first spoke to Moses from the burning bush The artist swept away all traces of landscape for a depthless of field of gold The prophets and disciples cast no shadows even thought they are bathed in divine light Jesus appears in a deep-blue almond shaped mandorla (almondshaped aureole of light) Cue Card
Icons - small portable paintings depicting, the Virgin, or saints Iconoclasm the destruction of religious or sacred images During the 8th century, icon veneration became confused with idol worship which brought about a ban on making icons and destruction of countess works of art Icons become enormously popular in Byzantine worship, both public and private. Eastern Christians considered icons a personal, intimate, and indispensable medium for spiritual interaction with holy figures The opponents of Christian figural art used Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image or any likeness 9-18: Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George, icon, Monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt Cue Card
The Byzantine Empire lost almost 2/3 of its territory-many cities and much population, wealth, and material resources The shock of these events persuaded the emperor Leo III that God was punishing the Christian Roman Empire He shunned the representation of God and all living things in holy placed some scholars believe another motivation was to assert his authority of the state over the Church
A powerful reaction against iconoclasm set in A new line of emperor brought back the tradition of lavish religious art and architecture and the making of images of Christ, the Virgin, and saints
The mosaic was replaced on the area that had been destroyed Mosaics rendered the furnishing in a perspective that recalls Greco-Roman roots 9-19: Virgin (Theotokos) & child enthroned, Hagia Sophia Dedicated 867
Exterior shows decorative placement of stonework and soft interplay of horizontal and vertical elements Domed central plan 9-20: Katholikon and Church of the Theotokos Hosios Loukas, Greece Katholikon early 11th century, Church of the Theotokos, 10th century
Large windows areas punctuated by smaller holes, creating a sense of mystery in the interior Interior wall areas dissolve into delicate arches Small dome with windows at drum; dome supported by squinches Church as a light interior filled with sparkling mosaics and frescoes
In the dome over the nave of the church Christ sees and understands all as he looks down from heaven Monumental form set in a sea of gold Christ as stern, severe, awesome, and almost menacing; owl-like eyes, forked beard, gap in beard above chin, two curls of hair dangle on forehead Christ as Pantocrator; half-length pose, hand on Bible, right hand blessing Christ s name written in Greek The dome rests on an octagon formed by squinches, which play the same role as pendentives in making the transition form a square base to a round dome Cue Card 9-23: Christ as Pantocrator. ( ruler of all ), dome mosaic. in the Church of the Dormition, Daphni, Greece, ca. 1090-1100, mosaic
9-24: Church of the Dormition Mosaic in the north arm of the east wall Daphni, Greece ca 1090-1100 Crucifixion mosaic Subtle blend of Hellenistic style and more abstract Byzantine The virgin Mary and Saint John point to Christ on the cross as if to a devotional object
5 domes placed in a cross pattern Contains relics of the Saint Mark, the evangelist Venice had obtain the relics of Saint Mark from Alexandria and they constructed the first Venetian shrine dedicated to him 0 a place chapel and martytium (martyr's shrine) Modeled on a church in Constantinople, Saint Mark s ahs a central dome over the cross in, four other domes over the arms the Greek cross and 40,000 square feet of mosaics 9-26: Saint Mark s Cathedral Venice, Italy, begun 1063 Cue Card
Windows at base of dome illuminate brilliant mosaics that cover every wall space above the first floor Figures are weightless in a field of gold mosaics Prominent iconostasis separates apse from nave Compartmentalized space of Middle Byzantine architecture more open and spacious than Hagia Sophia Vast central dome, 80 feet above the flow, 42 feet in diameter, Christ ascends to Heaven in the presence of Virgin Mary and 12 apostles The mosaics reveal the mysteries of the Christian faith Cue Card 9-26: Saint Mark s
Mosaics arranged in an elaborate hierarchy; Jesus at top Solidity of figure; monumental scale Sternness, awesome grandeur Blessing gesture in his right hand; left hand holds Bible inscribe d in Latin and Greek Image suggest a combination of Jesus Christ and God the Father Pointed arches suggest the beginning of the Gothic style Largest Byzantine mosaic cycle extant, over one acre of gold mosaic; dazzling recreation of a heavenly realm on earth Cue Card 9-27: Pantocrator, Cathedral at Monreale, Monreale, Sicily, Italy, ca. 1180-1190, mosaic
Middle Byzantine artist produced costly carved ivories in large numbers Portable shrine with hinged wings used for private devotion These were popular-among those that could afford such luxurious items Closed 9-28: Christ enthroned with saints (Harbaville Triptych (a three-paneled painting, ivory plaque, or altarpiece)
9-30: Paris Psalter, David composing the Psalms, c. 950-970, tempera on vellum Coronation of David David surrounded by Wisdom on the left & Prophecy on the right David and Goliath Cue Card Salome dancing before Herod Psalter, book of Psalms from the Bible Figures and landscape based on classical models Brilliant and balanced color Dynamic contrast between muscular bodies and stiff drapery David playing the harp inspired by Melody (upper body is classical in inspiration, lower body is medieval_ Personification of Echo behind a loving cup given as a prize for the best singer Muscular, classically inspired figure symbolizing Mountains of Bethlehem in lower right Arch and curves dominate composition Jewel-like border frames scene
Cue Card 9-31: Vladimir Virgin - Virgin (Theotokos) and Child Late 11th to early 12th century tempera on wood 2 ft. 6 1/2 in. x 1 ft. 9 in. Hierarchical order Presses her cheek against her son s as she contemplates his future
In 1204, Latin Crusaders sacked Constantinople, bringing to an end the Middle Byzantine era. It remained in Byzantine hands until it was captured by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 Revival of mural and icon painting
Tempera, linen, and silver on wood Notable for lavish use of finely etched silver foil Icon typifies Byzantine stylistic complexity Christ s fully modeled head and neck contrast with the schematic linear folds of his garment
9-35: ANDREI RUBLYEV, Three angels,old Testament Trinity C 1410,tempera on wood Cue Card Byzantine affinity for repeating forms from older art Heads of angels nearly identical Poses are mirror images Luminous appeal of colors Deep color harmonies of draperies Extensive use of god Nearly spaceless background 3 Old Testament angels who appear to Abraham and Sarah in Genesis; parallel relationship to the Christian trinity
Iconography Figures: frontal, elongated noses, large staring eyes, eyes, almond shaped faces, solemn expressions, Figures tall & slim, flattened, 22-D bodies placed side by side Figures seem to float in space Halo behind head Hierarchy No perspective: flat, 22-D, compressed space Gold backgrounds
The most characteristic work is the icon(religious devotional image usually portable size) these were paraded in religious processions, held a sacred place in the hearts of worshippers Marked by a combination of the classical art of Greece and Rome and more formal and hieratic medieval style It avoids nudity it had a pagan association Illuminated manuscripts few people could read so the narrative text bought the stories to life Hierarchal order Jesus is the largest and placed at the top, use of purple which was used for Byzantine royalty and Jesus Facial types are standardized, eyes are large and wide open, noses long and then, and mouths short and closed Most paintings have flattened backgrounds with a single layer of gold to symbolize an eternal space, a heavenly world
Except for HagiaSophia -not known for its size Buildings have plain exteriors made of brick or concrete in the Early Period. In the later periods richly articulated use of colors of brick, stone, and marble were added with contrasting vertical and horizontal elements Interiors are marked with extensive use of colored marbles on the floors, mosaics and frescoes on elevated portions of the buildings Domes low rather than soaring, interior arches reach into the space creating mysterious areas by half-lights and shimmering mosaics
The Byzantine Empire was born out of the remains of the Roman Empire, and continued many elements of the Roman classical tradition but in a Christian framework Byzantine art had two traditions: one reflecting the classical past and the second interest in a a hieratic medieval style-often in the same work
Byzantine walls were covered in shimmering gold mosaic that reflected a heavenly world of great opulence Byzantine painting specialized in mosaics, icons, and manuscript illumination Ivories were carved with precision and skill Byzantine architects invented the pendentive and later the squinchfor buildings known for their mysterious and shadowy interiors.