CHAPTER TWO NON-VIOLENCE

CHAPTER TWO NON-VIOLENCE The world has made remarkable advancement in science and technology; man has reached the moon and has explored the universe and even the depths of the oceans. The expanse of knowledge has made it possible to prevent natural calamities. The machines and modern gadgets have made human life more comfortable and luxurious. The darker side of this progress has led to great violence and bloodshed of innocents. The less developed nations are exploited by powerful nations and the poor people of the society are oppressed and exploited by the richer lot of the society. Moreover, we find such inhuman treatment of exploitation and violence throughout the human history in all sections of human society. The technological progress in human history has reflected itself by the use of arms as a means to achieve the ends. The race of arms created atom bombs and other disastrous devices that can annihilate the whole of humanity. Nagasaki and Hiroshima are the examples of the first generation of such weapons. Aldous Huxley in his book Janus, suggests that the use of the atomic bomb is where actual human history starts. 1 According to him, it is with the atomic bomb that human race came into itself and exhibited its potential for destruction. Therefore, the use of arms for achieving an end hreatens the existence of the human race as a whole and we can avoid it only when we live brotherly and exercise tolerance and non-violence. Bertrand Russell rightly states: 11

Since modern weapons leave us with no choice except all to live together or all to die together, the preservation of the human species demands a greater degree of natural tolerance than has ever before been necessary. 2 The modern world as it exists today is posed with new needs and different conflicts. To achieve the desired ends a choice is to be made between violence and non-violence. Violence is as an act of aggression or force exhibited by an individual or groups, which causes destruction to property, life and other sources of human existence. Violence includes various inhuman atrocities like mental torture, bodily harm, loss of property and overall disrespect to human rights. It has also caused wars and genocide where millions are harmed without any fault of theirs. There is no doubt that, at first sight, violence may be preferred by some over non-violence for resolving conflicts, or achieving desired ends or achieving quick results. This is because violence has clear and definite methods, weapons and strategies. A completely non-violent society is a mere utopia and violence becomes inevitable or unavoidable when used in order to maintain one s dignity or when provoked by unbearable oppression. Even Gandhi, who is considered as a modern prophet of non-violence, defended violence in certain situations. In October 1947, he approved the dispatch of troops to protect Kashmir against tribal invaders. 3 In contrast, non-violence seems difficult to visualize and its practical application is marked by hindrances and obstacles. Non-violence opens up the space where rupture is possible in the cycle of violence. Violence may result in loss of human lives and destruction of public and private property and other resources of human existence. Gandhi has very aptly objected to 12

use of violence, because when it appears to do good, the good is only temporary; the evil it does is permanent. 4 Use of violence in any situation only initiates opposition, produces a further chain-reaction and creates an atmosphere of hatredness leading to more violence. Non-violence on the other hand, puts a stop to violence or atrocities as it is difficult for a person to continue to cause sufferings to another. Sooner or later he becomes exhausted and worn out especially when the victim offers him no resistance. Non-violence by creating a sense of guilt in the evil doer subtly transforms him. Thus, non-violence not merely puts an end to violence but also transforms evil to good and significantly contributes to peace and goodwill. Gandhi has well said, I believe that non-violence is infinitely superior to violence; forgiveness is more manly than punishment. Forgiveness, adorns a soldiers. 5 Last but not the least we can conclude that non-violence may only suffice to solve problems posed by violence and thus non-violence may be practiced in every terrible situation or critical juncture. In the contemporary scientific and technological development and expansion of humanknowledge and activities, one should find out the ways to adopt tolerance which leads to non-violence. 1) HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF NON-VIOLENCE People have exercised and preached non-violence in almost every country, religion and culture. Many great leaders of thought and founders of great religions of the world have taught that violence cannot be overcome by violence and wicked cannot be overcome by wicked. Conversely, only non-violence can overcome violence it is so because, Violence could 13

never be ended by counter violence. The only effective alternative being the way of non-violence. 6 The tradition of non-violence has not been so deep-rooted and continuous in any other country or region of the world as in India. India occupies the foremost place and the greatest acclamation in expounding and practicing non-violence. India has successfully used non-violence under the active leadership of Gandhi, in its freedom struggle to fight oppression and finally to gain independence. It will not be wrong to conclude that nonviolence may be the greatest guerdon contributed by India to the world thought. Let us briefly examine the notion of non-violence in India Thought with reference to her Holy Scriptures, rulers and thinkers. 1.1) NON-VIOLENCE IN INDIAN THOUGHT The development of the concept of non-violence has reached its zenith and its course can be traced from the Vedic times, to the time of preachers of different religions and to the present era of Gandhi. This concept of nonviolence also finds a prominent place in the philosophy of various scholars and freedom fighters. Religion forms the basic pillar of our life that canalizes the energy into the right direction. All the major religions of the world whether Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity, Judaism and Islām share their basic tenet with non-violence and they have preached the principle of love, tolerance, goodwill and peace. In Indian religions the concept of non-violence (ahimsa) has played a pivotal role throughout its civilizational march. The word ahimsa expresses an ancient Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism precept. T.W. Rhys 14

Davids says that ahimsa doctrine is part of a tradition based on very ancient belief whether inside or outside the ranks of Brahmans. 7 The ancient principle of ahimsa has had a profound impact on Indian thought and civilization over the millennia, and it continues to influence the world today. We must move to consider the concept of non-violence in the prime Indian Holy Scriptures. (A) Concept of Non-Violence in the Holy Indian Scriptures: a) Non-Violence in Vedas: The principle of non-violence or ahimsa was little known or respected during the Vedic period. In the Vedic period of early Hinduism (1500 B.C.- 500 B.C.) ritual sacrifice of animals and the subsequent consumption of its meat was a pre-dominant custom. 8 Sacrifice of animals during this period was in-fact an essential part of their religion. This sacrifice of animal was a moral duty and a means of redemption. As Manu states that, sacrifices leads to a twice-born as well as the slaughtered animal to the highest position. 9 Unto Tathinen s Ahimsa points out that in Vedic literature there is more reference to Himsa than to Ahimsa and that Himsa is used mainly in prayers to God to protect them from violence caused by demons, wild animals or naturals calamities. 10 The term ahimsa appeared for the first time in the Taittiriya-Samhita of the Black Yajurveda TS 5.2.8.7 where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself. 11 It occurs several times in Satapatha-Brahmana in the sense of non-injury without a moral connotation. Satapatha-Brahmana states: Now, when he performs the animals offering he thereby redeems himself. And this, indeed, to wit, flesh, is the best kind of food: he thus becomes an 15

eater of the best kind of food. Let not a year passes by for him without his offering. 12 In the Vedic conception ahimsa is not applicable to enemies in war, to wicked people, offending beast and animals to be sacrificed or to be killed for one s livelihood. Latter on the concept of non-violence developed especially as a reaction to the unrestrained killing of animals during the Vedic period. The concept widened its scope and implication and became the vital force by sixth century B.C. 13 b) Non-violence in Upanishads: In the Upanishads, the concept ahimsa is in its nascent stage. T.W. Rhys Davids states that, the doctrine of ahimsa: first finds expression in the mystical passage in the Chhandogya Upanishads 3.17 where five ethical qualities one being ahimsa are said to be equivalent to a part of sacrifice of which the whole life of man is made an epitome. 14 Therefore, ahimsa is one of the five essential virtues listed in this Upanishad the others being tapas (penance), danam (alms), arjavam (honesty), and satyavachanam (truthfulness). It furthers states that one who practices ahimsa towards all living beings (sarva-bhuta) except at holy places escapes reincarnation. This indicates that the sacrifice of animals, however at holy places (tirtha) was not considered as violence. The Chhandogya Upanishads also mentions, Thou Art thee 15 which teaches ahimsa even towards sub-human beings. c) Non-violence in Ramayana: The Ramayana, the great Indian epic further cultivates the concept of non-violence. It holds that punishing one who is liable for it is not violence, 16

since violence done for the betterment of society and others is not violence rather non-violence. Gandhi considers that the Ramayana is an allegory, which represents the war inside the human mind between good and evil. Gandhi wrote: The Mahabahrata and the Ramayana are undoubtedly allegories as the internal evidence shows. Each epic describes the eternal duel that goes on between the forces of darkness and of light. 16 He has symbolically represented the two figures Rama and Ravana which are signifying good and evil respectively. He considers Rama to be an allegorical abstraction representing good and non-violence, while Ravana represents evil. The duel between Rama and Ravana is therefore an eternal conflict between the forces of good and evil. Thus, Tulsi s Ramayana further elaborates the concept of non-violence in the character of Rama. d) Non-violence in the Mahabharata: Mahabharata on one hand considers ahimsa as the highest duty and on the other; it not only permits himsa against an evil doer but also considers it as a duty for the kshatriyas. This means that in Mahabharata violence to an evil-doer is bracketed under non-violence. Though this epic is full of violence its moral is that war does good to nobody and always ends up in death and destruction. It tells us about the futility of war. Gandhi too propounds similar belief: It is well-known that I have never look upon the Mahabharata as a mere record of earthly warfare. In the garb of epics, the poet has described the eternal warfare within the individual as well as society, between truth and untruth, violence and non-violence, right and wrong. Looking at the epic even superficially, one can understand how the great Vyasa 17

has demonstrated that in his war the victor was no better off than the vanquished. Out of the concourse of warriors, only seven remained to tell the tale. The author has shown clearly to that in armed warfare the contending parties are certain to stoop to meanness and trickery. 17 This great epic ends with the glorification of non-violence with Bhishma telling Yudhisthira, Ahimsa is the highest religion. It is again the highest penance. It is also the highest truth from which all duty proceeds. 18 In Shantiparva, Kapila states kindliness, forgiveness, peacefulness, ahimsa, truth, straightforwardness, absence of pride, modesty, forbearance, and tolerance as the means to attain Brahmana. 19 Thus, ahimsa is incorporated among the ten ways to become Brahmana. According to Gandhi, like Ramayana, the Mahabharata too is an allegory. He maintains: That Mahabharata depicts for all the time the eternal struggle that goes on daily between the forces of good and evil in the human breast and in which though good is ever victorious evil does put up a brave show and baffles even the keenest conscience. It shows also the only way to right action. 20 Thus, the Mahabharata though is mainly concerned with the topic of war, is a veritable treasure house for the seekers of ahimsa. It advocated nonviolence as the highest virtue, the quality of the God and established nonviolence about thousand of years ago from where it developed in its present form. e) Non-violence in Bhagavad-Gita: The Bhagavad-Gita or simply the Gita is a sermon given by the Lord Krishna to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra. It is the song of the Lord and is a part of the Mahabharata. In chronological sequence, the Gita comes 18

after the Veda, the Upanishad, and the Ramayana and it contains all their philosophies and ethics. Non-violence holds a pre-eminent place in the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita. Central to the teaching of the Gita is the concept of Anasakta karmoyoga, which is a way to self-realization. According to Gandhi: Anasakti (selfless) transcends Ahimsa. He who would be anasakta (selfless) has necessarily to practice nonviolence in order to attain the state of selflessness. Ahimsa is, therefore, a necessary preliminary, it is included in Anasakti, it does not go beyond it. 21 The Anasakta is, therefore one who is selfless and to attain this state of selflessness one has to practice non-violence. The votary of non-violence in Gita is called Sthitaprajna or Trigunatita. The Gita portrays Sthitaprajna as one who is an apostle of Non-violence and is free from worldly attractions. This concept of Sthitaprajna from the Gita was taken up by Gandhi and he referred it as a Satyagrahi. In the character of Niskamkarma Yogi the Gita shows a true non-violence resister. In the Gita, Krishna convinces Arjuna to go on battle with his own kinsmen but this does not mean that this holy book preaches violence. Gita speaks about a non-violent being in following words: A person of perfect mental equilibrium risen above violence, a true practitioner of Non-violence, can or 0make violence for good of all without the least attachment, can be Non-violent even while killing. 22 Thus, here the idea is that killing or harming somebody with a sense of duty and without bearing, least malice against the opponent involves no violence. Gandhi defends Gita: to say that the Gita teaches violence or justifies war, because advice to kill was given on a particular 19

occasion, is as wrong as to say that himsa is the law of life. 23 In the sixteenth chapter of Gita, Krishna tells Arjuna about nonviolence. He asks Arjuna never to hurt, harm, or give injury to any living being human or sub-human in any situation whether of anger or inconsistency. 24 Thus, the Gita teaches one to remain non-violent not only in ones action but also in thoughts and words. The Gita also gives an ideal definition of a man of ahimsa who may practice: Non-violence in thoughts, words and deeds, truthfulness and geniality of speech, absence of anger even on provocation, renunciation of the idea of doership in action, tranquility of mind, refraining from malicious gossip, kindness to all creatures, absence of attachment to the objects of senses even during their contact with senses, mildness, sense of shame in doing things not sanctioned by the scriptures or usage, abstaining from idle pursuits, sublimity, forgiveness, fortitude, eternal purity, absence of malice, absence of feeling of self importance. 25 Thus, the Bhagavad Gita in its broad and deep sense teaches and preaches ahimsa (non-violence) and approves of all such actions that are performed under its ethical system which fundamentally anchor upon goodness, peace, goodwill and non-violence. B) Concept of Non-Violence in Indian Schools of thought: a) Non-Violence in Jainism: Jainism is the first religion in the world to include the principles of ahimsa as part of its teachings. Jaina philosophy or the Arhat-Darshan is a chief propagator of Non-violence. In fact, ahimsa is the cardinal percept in the Jaina Philosophy. Jainism defines ahimsa, if one avoids the killing of human beings, birds and animals, and plants even in pramad, such kind of 20

vow is called real ahimsa. 26 In Jainism, Jnana (knowledge of reality as it is), Sraddha (faith in teachings of Jainas), and Caritra (cessation from doing all that is evil) are the three jewels that lead one to salvation. This Caritra i.e. right conduct consists of five vows, of which ahimsa is the first with Satya, Asteya, Brahmachraya, and Aparigraha beings its secondary corollaries. 27 Thus, Jainism believes that non-violence leads one to salvation: Ahimsa is the best medicine for the suffering arising from the disease of the world-whirling. It is the benefactor of all beings, similar to a good mother. Non-violence is the canal of nectar in the whole worlddesert. 28 The Jainas have five rules called samitis to observe ahimsa. The Samitis includes careful movement, careful speech, careful eating, careful placing, and removing and careful evacuation. These acts of carefulness refer mainly to the non-killing of any existing beings and to vocal nonviolence. 29 Thus, we find that Jainism teaches one to observe ahimsa both in physical and vocal terms. Jainism mentions some kinds of himsa namely samkalpi himsa or intentional injury and arambhi himsa. Arambhi himsa is sub-divided into three categories: (a) Udyami himsa ; that is one committed during the implementation of ones profession as in industry, art, trade etc. (b) Virodhi himsa i.e. one committed in self-defense against thieves, enemies and all those who intentionally kill or injure human-beings or other non-human living beings which do not cause any trouble to humankind. (c) Grhaarambhi himsa i.e. one which becomes inevitable in the performance of the household duties such as cooking food, the construction of buildings, wells, gardens, the maintenance of cattle etc. Modern interpreters of Jainism believe that, samkalpinik himsa may be avoided while the others may be 21

permissible under certain situations. 30 Thus, in Jainism like Hinduism, violence may be justified only in self-defense and in other permissible professions of a soldier, agriculture, trade etc. The followers of Jainism make considerable efforts to avoid injuring plants in everyday life and killing of animals for food is strictly prohibited. They go out on the extreme side not to hurt even small insects and other minute animals. They observe that injury caused by carelessness is as severe as one done deliberately. According to Jainism, this world is full of embodied souls experiencing pain and all kind of activities involves violence. So it insists that the follower of Jainism should engage in the fewest possible worldly activities to escape being a part of violence. Jain scripture Uttaradhayayana sutra states that: The essence of the wisdom of a wise man lies in this that he hurts no creature: to be equal-minded to all creatures and regard them as one s own self is ahimsa. Learn this noble truth. 31 The understanding and implementation of ahimsa in Jainism therefore is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion. b) Non-Violence in Buddhism: In the study of ahimsa the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha takes the foremost place. Now Buddhism has become a forceful system to advocate human suffering and its resolutions. The concept of ahimsa though existed prior to the birth of this philanthropist and religious leader; it could not make an everlasting impression as it did now. The birth of Gautama Buddha was at a crucial point in the Indian history. The society was suffering from the rigid caste system, which bestowed rights and privileges to the Aryans and caused sufferings to the rest. The common man was 22

suffering under this oppressive social order. The emancipator, Gautama Buddha emerged at this ripe time and he preached ahimsa as a way to communal harmony and social progress. He knew that a society or in the words of Kant a Kingdom of Ends that is based on caste system could never rest in peace but would be always in strife and struggle. He therefore, preached of a society based on equality of individual and which is also, built on the basis of peace and non-violence as well. According to Buddhism, life should be governed by the five principles or Panchsheel namely not to kill, not to steal, not to tell lies, not to commit adultery, and not to use intoxicants. 32 This Panchsheel is the cardinal precept of Buddhist s ahimsa. The Buddhist doctrine of non-violence is more practicable as it is free from extremes. Therefore, the path of the Buddha is accordingly called the Middle Path and in Islam it has also been recommended for the Muslim Ummah that it is a community of Middle Wayfare. The basic tenet of the doctrine of Middle Path (avoidance of extremes) also emphasizes ahimsa. The tenet includes non-violence, non- hatred, friendliness to all, renunciation, continence and the ideal or reaching nirvana i.e., freedom from the cycle of birth. The two basic teachings of Buddhism namely avera or non-hatred and karuna or compassion too leads to non-violence. 33 T.W. Rhys Davids refers to the eight-fold path of Budhism as the very essence of Buddhism and this noble eight-fold path is essentially non-violent. 34 Ahimsa also finds its place in the ten precepts for the called Sikha Padani. 35 Thus, ahimsa is a widely mention term in the teachings of Buddhism. As T. W. Rhys Davids rightly brings out: It (non-killing) occurs twice in the eight-fold path, first under right aspiration, and again under right conduct. It is the first in the Ten precepts for the 23

Order, and therefore of the five rules of conduct for laymen (Panchsilani). 36 Buddhism considers life to be a sacred one and therefore renounces violence. Buddha exhorts, Just as a mother as long as she lives cares for her only child, so should man feel an all-embracing love to all living beings. 37 Buddha believes that violence can lead only to violence, Never in this world hatred ceases by hatred, hatred ceases by love. 38 He tried to cultivate peaceful atmosphere and love even for the enemy. His doctrine of ahimsa emphasizes to return love for hatred and to avoid all kinds of violence. He urges for compassion for all life forms. Buddha sought to remove all evils from man and considered that violence too is an evil which destroys the best qualities of a human individual. He believed that hatred, enmity, anger and envy ultimately lead one to violence, and therefore, should be avoided up to best of one s efforts. About violence, Buddha writes: If a man by causing pain to others, wishes to obtain pleasure for himself, he, entangled in the bonds of selfishness will never be free from hatred. 39 Thus, in Buddhism, non-violence is more at the mental level and several Buddhist scriptures point out at vocal non-violence. It asks the followers to remain affectionate and pleasing even in their speech. Buddha preached every one to follow ahimsa. He said, Lead others, not by violence, but righteousness and equity. 40 According to Dhammapada Buddha pointed out that one who carries on his tasks with violence is neither righteous nor religious. He said that he who has truth, virtue, non-violence, restraint, and control and is free from impurity is a wise man and can be called an elder. 41 The entire life of Buddha is full of ahimsa and his teachings easily get imbibed among the people. 24

(C) Concept of Non-Violence in Indian Rulers and Thinkers a) Non- Violence in Ashoka s Period: The precept of Buddhism got a universal recognition and worldwide sympathy under the pious patronage of Emperor Asoka. Asoka (304-232 BC) the grand son of Chandragupta Maurya was highly influenced by the teachings of Buddhism. In the early years of his rule, this Mauryan emperor was cruel and despotic in his behaviour. The fateful Kalinga war marked a metamorphosis in his life. Though Asoka conquered Kalinga the blood shed, slaughter and sufferings his conquest brought made an everlasting impression on him. This campaign made him realize the futility of war and the full extent of sufferings it causes. Thus, at this golden point of his life he turned away from war and embraced the teachings of Buddhism. In his Rock Edict 13, he says that his only military conquest was that of Kalinga. After this conquest, he used the word Dharma Vijaya for sheer military conquest. In this Edict, he says, Directly after the conquest of Kalingas, the Beloved of the gods became keen in the pursuit of Dharma, and inculcation of Dharma. 42 Asoka got his principles of policy and morality inscribed on rocks and pillars and here ahimsa forms the subject of the first, second, and fourth of his Rock Edicts. 43 Ashoka s dharma (religion) or dhamma (system) is basically a law of piety. 44 His Dharma Vijaya or conquest of love is a means to convert the opponent with love without the use of force or deception. This Dharma was wholly secular and essentially a frame work of ethical principles and practical philosophy. As Mookerji explains, Dharma is described in a nutshell as the right attitude towards all. 45 25

Ahimsa or non-violence has been declared as the highest good in Ashoka s Dhamma. The principles of his Dhamma include Satyam or Truth, Avihisabutanam or Non-violence and Samyan or Self- control. 46 insists on the recognition of the importance of all life forms and prohibits the slaying of men and animals in war or sacrifice. He ruled out that husk should not be burnt as it involves the killing of many living creatures and accordingly, he prohibited the burning of forests as it may harm or injure living creatures. 47 mentions in one of his Edicts: He In the conformity with his teachings on killing, he Formerly in the kitchen of his majesty king Priyadarsin each day many thousands of living creatures were slain to make curries. At present moment when this pious edict is being written, only these three living creatures, namely two peacocks and one deer, are killed daily, and the deer not invariably. Even these creatures shall not be slaughtered in future. 48 Ashoka also followed ahimsa in matters of governance both within and outside his state. He considered that the king should pardon anyone who had done wrong and one who was sentenced to death should be granted a period of grace of three days. 49 Asoka abhorred war in all its form and followed the principle of non-violence in matters of international affairs too. He therefore dispatched peace-missions to various lands to sort out differences. 50 In his utterances, he emphasized the spirit of tolerance, peace and compromise, which go along with ahimsa. Thus, Asoka extended the domain of his ahimsa principle from human beings to animals and from his own masses to foreign people. A unique distinction indeed lies in the use of his ahimsa doctrine. He was in fact the first person to apply non-violence actively to politics and 26

interstatal relations. Thus, Asoka is rightly considered and referred to as, humanities first teacher of universal religion 51 emerged from Indian soil. b) Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), was a social reformer and the pioneer of Bengal Renaissance. He had a secular outlook especially owing to his wide reading of Islamic metaphysics and sociology, Indian scriptures in Sanskrit and study of Lamaist Buddhism of Tibet. He inculcated the best of all and tried to remove the evil practices present in the same. His character was marked by reason and rationality which gave him a liberal religious outlook. His efforts of social reforms and emancipation of women became fruitful and sati got abolished in 1829. 52 Among his near contacts were people like Bentham and Lord Brougham, the latter being specifically opposed to slavery. Bentham called Roy as a collaborator in the service of humanity. 53 Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a great philanthropist, universalistic and humanist who truly believed in the notions of co-operation, tolerance, justice sympathy, reason and brotherhood. He state: Man did not appear on the earth out of nowhere. He rose out of the background of the physical universe, through the long process of biological evolution. The umbilical cord was never broken. Man with his mind, intelligence, will remain an integral part of the physical universe. The latter is a cosmos-a-lawgoverned system. Therefore, man s being, his emotion, will, ideas, are also determined; man is essential rational. The reason in man is an echo of the harmony of the universe. Morality must be referred back to man s innate rationality.the innate rationality of man is the only guarantee of a harmonious order, which will also be a moral order. 54 27

He considered the entire human race to be a single family with different nations and tribes its offshoots. He vehemently supported the doctrine of universal sympathy and advocated for tolerance and love for mankind. Thus his entire teachings and philosophy, his services to humanity, his striving for the freedom of women and the poor, his notions of love and tolerance makes him one of the forerunner of non-violence.\ c) Rabindra Nath Tagore: Rabindra Nath Tagore (1861-1941) was another great Indian visionary. He was a poet-philosopher, a internationalist, a humanist and educationalist who bases his philosophy and thought on personal realization. 55 For Tagore, the ultimate human destiny is the realization of the universe in the individual and for this one needs to go beyond his selfish egoistic narrow existence and try to know the universal. 56 In other words one needs to develop vision or enlarge one s consciousness to arrive at an understanding of one s existence. Tagore makes the use of terms self or soul consciousness to explain his ideas. Tagore emphasizes that to achieve this consciousness of self one need neither the use of logic nor knowledge but rather love. Love becomes a source of joy because through love one begins to identify oneself with the object of one s love. This implies that ideal love is perfect joy. 57 Love does not mean gratification of one s ownself nor its goal is any selfish motive but love is the end in itself. This concept of love becomes clear from his saying, For love the questions how, why, what for etc do not exist. Love is its own reason, its own goal, and is its own responsibility. 58 It implies that love incorporates with it the values of self detachment and self-sacrifice. Tagore states that one begins this process by having sympathy towards others. 28

Tagore s love for non-violence also forms one of the central concepts of his thoughts and his novel, The Home and the World which best illustrates it. In the novel the central character portrays the doctrine of non-violence. 59 Tagore abhorred imperialism and admonished it considering imperialism and violence to be the two sides of the same coin that is inseparable from each other. He is noted of saying in an interview to Izvestia, Russian newspaper that, Violence begets violence and blind stupidity. Freedom of mind is needed for the reception of truth; terror hopelessly kills it. 60 Tagore was in fact, a true humanist and his heart was full of feelings for the interests of humankind. As a humanist he always advocated for values of love, brotherhood, cooperation and human dignity. He was critical of the feelings of nationalism and pointed towards its drawbacks. Mohammad Iqbal also hold a the same view point when he says that nationalism brings sectarianism and divides human beings on the basis of politics, religion, faith and other caste-linguistic terms. 61 According to Tagore, nationalism also leads to terrorist activities and was anti-human: India has never had a real sense of nationalism. Even though from childhood I had been taught that idolatry of the Nation is almost better than reverence for God and humanity, I believe I have outgrown that teaching, and it is my conviction that my country men will truly gain their India by fighting against the education which teaches them that a country is greater than the ideals of humanity. 62 Another dimension was added to this concept with the influence of Raja Ram Mohan Roy and his Brahmo Samaj and Tagore began to promote the cause of world humanism. This humanism transcends all boundaries of ethics, culture, religion and linguistic distinctions. He was an advocate of an inter- civilization alliance and a merging together of East and West. His ideas of 29

love, peace, harmony, unity, humanism were such that they have relevance still today and will bear the same in the future in a world marked by violence and terrorism. d) Rajendra Prasad: Rajendra Prasad (1884-1963) a scholar and a humanist was one of the greatest followers of Mahatma Gandhi and his teachings of non-violence. He considered that in the roots Indian culture lays the values of the spirit of tolerance and mutual reconciliation and understanding, which have been responsible for the stability and continuity of Indian civilization. Non-violence according to him, is the essence of Indian culture and Indian philosophy has always stressed on shaping people s life in such a way that the life of others become pleasant. 63 He advocated that independence has brought with it a lot responsibility and therefore, advocated to people of different caste, creed, region and religion to live together with fellow feeling and not to indulge any kind of transgression or in violence. As a great humanist and a man of conscience, he opposed wide hoarding of nuclear weapons in the world. Being so sensitive a person, he could foresee the death and destruction the nuclear weapons were capable of and therefore tried to build a strong public opinion against its use. 64 He was not all in favour of any individual or group which violates human rights or creates problems for human race. He was a vehement supporter of a classless society so that the exploitation of the poor could be controlled and preached non-violence as away to attain such a society. He firmly believed that a society which achieves its freedom, equality and justice, through non-violence can easily give up violence of class struggle. 30

1.2) NON-VIOLENCE IN CHRISTIANITY A) Non-Violence in Holy Christian Scriptures The teachings of Christianity hold an eminent and predominant place in the history of pacifism and non-violence. The Prophet of this religion, Jesus Christ was himself called the Prince of Peace. There are ample of evidences in the utterance of Christ, in his actions and in the manner of his crucifixion, which shows the non-violence as the essence of Christian religion. The Sermon on the Mount especially symbolizes the non-violent teachings of the religion. The Sermon reads as follows: Ye have heard that it hath been said, an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth; But I say unto you, that you resist not evil; but whosoever shall smite thee on the right cheek, turn to him the other also. And if any man will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him have thy cloak also. And whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain. 65 This Sermon on the Mount had a great influence on Gandhi. Accordingly, he mentions it in his autobiography: But the New Testament produced a different impression, especially the Sermon on the Mount which went straight to my heart. I compare it with the Gita. The verses, But I say unto you, that ye resist not evil: but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also. And if any man take away thy coat let him have thy cloak too delighted me beyond measure. 66 Jesus believed in universal brotherhood and fatherhood of God. He propagated a sense of non-violence and ruled out any kind of violence. The very verses, Love your enemies, and Do good to them that hate you 67 31

further signifies his concept of universal love and brotherhood for all. His saying, Resist not him that is evil, Resist not evil and Do not resist evil by violence, shows his firm faith in non-violent resistance. According to Christ the two commandments of Old Testament namely, Thou shalt love thy God and Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself 68 holds a key significance. He further added to it and said: Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbour, and hate thine enemy, but, on the contrary, Jesus Christ instructs: But I say unto you, love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you and persecute you; That you may be the children of your Father that is in Heaven; for he maketh his sun to rise on the Evil and the good and sendeth rain on the just and the unjust. 69 Thus, Jesus Christ in his teachings emphasis on the virtue of forbearance and to spread love in all directions be it one s friend or fiend. He believed in the power of suffering for truth and of gaining victory through non-violent means. He emphasized that suffering is a means to convert hatred into love. Jesus Christ exercised his teachings in his own life and in manner of his death. At the time of his crucifixion, he prayed to God for the forgiveness and well-being of his persecutors. He said, Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do. 70 These verses which Jesus Christ uttered at the time of his death, speaks that he never believed in curbing violence by counter violence but rather believed in tolerance, love and non-violent means. However, most of the followers of Jesus Christ generally seldom take care of his pious teachings and are indulging in various inhuman activities and are creating problems for the human kind. The same is true for the followers of other 32

religions like Hinduism, Islam, Judaism and others who have completely turned a blind eye to the teachings of peace and non-violence present in their religion. Gandhi considered cross to be a symbol of law of suffering. He rightly speaks about Jesus, The love that Jesus taught and practiced was not a mere personal virtue, but it was essentially a social virtue. 71 Thus, Christianity overall is a religion of love, compassion, brotherhood, and mercy towards all animate objects of nature and is essentially a religion that symbolizes non-violence. B) Non-Violence in Western Thought a) Henry David Thoreau: Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) was an American thinker and anarchist of the nineteenth century. He coined the term Civil Disobedience and wrote several pamphlets on the subject. He applied this technique for the non-payment of taxes to free America from slavery and used the term for the first time in 1849 in his speeches. His idea of Civil Disobedience is that there should be maximum cooperation amongst people and institutions when they promote good and non-cooperation when they lead to evil. He believed in the law of conscience and in men s will to do good. He held that it is men s duty to correct the government when it breaks laws or does anything wrong and violate human rights. His essay Duty of Civil Disobedience greatly influenced Gandhi, though Thoreau s idea and technique of civil disobedience was markedly different from Gandhi s. Gandhi s civil resistance was a passive one while Thoreau justified both active (violent) and passive resistance. Gandhi acknowledges the Thoreavian influence on him in his letter to Roosevelt written on July 1, 1942, I have profited 33

greatly by the writing of Thoreau and Emerson. 72 The contribution of Thoreau was rightly penned down by Haridas T. Majumdar in following words: b) John Ruskin: Thoreau s teachings are today the main spring of Indian Non-violent Revolution. Henry David Thoreau is known to the American people as the author of the Walden. To Gandhi and India he is known primarily as the author of the immortal essay on Civil Disobedience. America, through Washington and Lincoln, and especially through Thoreau, may be held responsible for the motif of the present of non-violent revolution in India. Gandhi is today giving back to America what he received from her by way of Thoreau. The American people can best show their esteem for Gandhi by enshrining Thoreau in their hearts. 73 John Ruskin (1819-1900) was an artist, critic, essayist and a writer on ethics, sociology and political economy. He struggled to bring equality, justice and goodness for the entire human race. He desired that the rich people should abstain from luxuries of their life so that the poor can have something to lead their life. He was hopeful of removing the hardship of people caused by inequality by appealing to the human conscience. His book Unto This Last gives a theory of political economy, which was very different from the already established theories. He writes: A laborer serves his country with his spade, just as a man in the middle ranks of life serves it with sword, pen or lancet. If the service be less, and, therefore, the wages during health less, then the reward when health is broken may be less, but not less honorable: and it ought to be quite as natural and straight forward a matter for a laborer to take his pension from his parish, because he has deserved well of his parish, as for a 34

man in higher rank, to take his pension from his country, because he has deserved well of his country. 74 This means that he considered no work inferior to other and that the good of the individual contain in the good of all. Mohammad Iqbal and Jean Paul Sartre share similar views when they say that the good of individual lies in the good of society 75. According to Jean Paul Sartre: Subjectivism means, on the one hand, the freedom of the individual subject and, on the other hand, that man cannot pass beyond human subjectivity. It is the latter which is the deeper meaning of existentialism. When we say man chooses himself, we mean that everyone of us must choose himself; but by that we mean in choosing for himself he chooses for all man. 76 John Ruskin included the need of affection which one man owes to another in justice. He writes: All right relations between master and operative, and all their best interests, ultimately depend on these. 77 His teachings and writings made a deep imprint on Gandhi and he translated them in Gujarati entitling Sarvodaya meaning the welfare for all. About Ruskin s work Gandhi writes: c) Leo Tolstoy: The book was impossible to lay aside, once I had begun it. It gripped me. I could not get any sleep that night. I determined to change my life in accordance with the ideals of the book. 78 Leo Tolstoy (1828-1900) gave the doctrine of universal love and of non-resistance. His works, War and Peace, The Kingdom of God is Within You, Resurrection, and Christianity and Patriotism gave him immense popularity and success. One of his greatest contributions to the world history is his systematic development of the concept of non-violence where love is 35

the basic element to his principle of non-violence, which as Aylmer Maude points out, are identical. His philosophy called Christian anarchism 79 which is an adaptation of Sermon of the Mount is a way to solve modern socio-political problems. His concept of non-violence is rooted in the fact it is a crime to impose ones will on another or to use force of any kind. He noticed that there is a wide disparity between Christ s teachings and the actions of his followers. He believed that God could rule the world if man lived in peace with one another, remained pure and renounced no national distinction. This shows Tolstoy s firm faith in peace, goodwill and nonviolence. He believed in a state free from violence, injustice, hatred, inequality and exploitation and gave this doctrine of Non-possession and Bread labor. Tolstoy derived the concept of bread labor expressed by the Russian writer and philosopher T.F. Bondareff who stated, If a man work not, neither shall he eat. 80 Again, Tolstoy firmly believed that, To be good and lead a good life means to give to others more than one takes for them. 81 In his famous book War and Peace, he shows how violence causes degeneration of man s morals. His immense faith in non-violence comes out by his opposition to use of force in any situation. In all critical situ situations he preached that man should stand firmly against evil forces and face them with courageous spirit. He says: The Christian man must suffer and swallow every injustice. He must never use force to oppose force, because his own violence would be recognizing force and the principle of evil as permissible. 82 36

He was opposed to any form of violence and his work, Three Parables asserts that, evil must not be driven out with evil, that all resistance by violence merely increases the evil. 83 His works greatly influenced Gandhi and in one of his letters to Tolstoy, he refers himself to be his humble servant. Tolstoy is truly eulogized by Gandhi in following words: When I was passing through a severe crisis of skepticism and doubt that I came across his book, The Kingdom of God is within You and was deeply impressed by it. I was at that time a believer in violence. Its reading cured me of my skepticism and made me a firm believer in Ahimsa (non-violence). What has appealed to me most in Tolstoy s life is that he practiced what he preached and reckoned no cost greater in his pursuit of truth. 84 Thus, it is concluded that Leo Tolstoy strongly believed in humanism and spiritualism and vehemently taught and preached non-violence, tolerance, freedom and non-violence. He believed that the entire progress of human-kind is solely based on doing good, exercising non-violence and loving and serving human-beings as a whole. 1.3) NON-VIOLENCE IN ISLAM The rise of Islam opened a new era of truth and non-violence in the world history. Etymologically the word Islam refers to peace, safety, goodwill and salvation. The root word from where the word Islam has its origin is Salam which means peace, establishing peace, peace with the creator and peace with the entire creation of the Almighty. 85 Islam is a religion that is based on the basic pillar of Tawhid that is there is no other God except Allah. This has been propagated and spread by innumerable messengers sent by God beginning from Adam to Prophet 37

Mohammad (S), who came with the call of submission to Allah. Islam reached its completion with the coming of the last messenger of God, Prophet Mohammad (S) who was born in seventh century A.D. in the country of Arabia. 86 Islam, like previous forms of religion too, is based on the principles of love, justice and brotherhood. It preaches the doctrine of brotherhood irrespective of ones race, color, creed or geographical division. It teaches its followers to solve problems in a peaceful manner. This is because it believes that peace is the best means to sort out conflicts as it causes neither social disturbance nor leads to any loss of life or property. The respect, dignity and service to human-beings become the prime aims of Islam. Its world-view and value system lay much stress on love and nonviolence as the religion (Islam) stands for peace and goodwill. A) The Qur anic Concept of Non-violence: The teachings of Islam are based on the Holy Qur an and the Sunnah of the Prophet. Although the Qur an permits war against oppression, injustice, tyranny and inhuman activities, but this war, overall in the way of God (jihad) should be fought without any malice or aggression. The Qur an teaches the way one should lead one s life. It provides the guidelines to be followed by the followers for their betterment. On right conduct it says: O Mankind! Lo, we have created you male and female, and have made you nations and tribes that ye may know one another. Lo! The noblest of you, in the sight of Allah, is that of the best conduct. Lo! Allah is Knowing, Aware. 87 It out rightly tells what is right and what is wrong and orders the followers to tread on the right path lest they will have to face the wrath of God on the doomsday. This becomes quite obvious from the following verse of the Qur an: 38

O you, who believe, stand firmly for justice, as witness for God, if it means testifying against yourselves, or your parents, or your kin, and whether it is against the rich or poor, for God prevails upon all. Follow not the lusts of your hearts, lest you serve, and if you distort justice or decline to do justice, verily God knows what you do. 88 This Holy Book gives immense importance to patience and promises grand rewards to those who practice tolerance and patience. This patience is considered as one of the highest virtues in Islam. The word patience here refers to the notion of non-violence and tolerance forms the basis of peace. The Qur an prefers non-violence to violence and considers it a better technique of conquering evil as compared to violence. War has been oft mentioned in the Qur an as something evil, negation of peace, disliked thing etc. 89 In the Qur an it is stated that Allah abhors things like fasad which means any action which leads to chaos or disruption in the social system and may lead of loss of life and property. It teaches to turn aside evil by good and to practice religious tolerance. 90 B) Views of Prophet Mohammad on Non-Violence: The last messenger of Islam, Prophet Mohammad (S) himself lived a very simple life based on peace, love, tolerance and kindness to all. Prophet(S) lived a value based life and his life is considered as a perfect model 91 by the Muslims. We find passages in the Qur an which reveals that he considered non-violence, a better technique of conquering evil than violence. Through his own way of life, he preached non-violence and truth. Prophet s declaration of the oneness of God (tawhid) enraged the people of Arab and he had to face a lot of opposition, humiliation and torture from them in his attempt to spread Islam. The noteworthy thing is that he never ever cursed anybody and rather prayed for their enlightenment so that they 39