HOW POPE LEO X USED RAPHAEL S ART TO AFFECT PUBLIC ASSOCIATIONS WITH HIMSELF AND THE MEDICI FAMILY Lisa Ellis December 15, 2013
Ellis 1 Abstract Pope Leo X commissioned quite a lot of artwork from Raphael over the years. The form, subject, and critical acclaim of each piece vary wildly, but there is one overarching theme to the collection: each piece connects Leo X, the Medici Family, papal authority, and temporal authority in some way. Most do this by implying that the Medici have been in power since before Rome was founded, some insert common Medici symbols and insignia into otherwise straightforward autobiographical and biblical scenes. Leo X acknowledged the growing threats to the papacy, the Vatican, and the whole region of Italy and believed that the only way to fulfill his duty as head of the Catholic Church and protector of Rome was to unify the peninsula. He also believed that the Medici family should be who Italy unified under.
Ellis 2 Art in the Renaissance era was expensive, especially the high-end pieces done by geniuses like Raphael. A person would have to be wealthy, powerful, or both to commission one of these works. Pope Leo X was in the position to pay for many of these throughout his papacy, in part due to his high standing in the Church, and in part due to his family: the Medici. No one, however, could spend as much money as he did on art without good reason and the artwork he commissioned from Raphael had a very specific one. Leo X was elected to papacy during a very turbulent time, with threats both from rebelling church factions in the north and Turkish invaders from the east. Decentralized Italy in the 15 th century had little hope facing these looming challenges, but Leo X had a plan. He understood the cultural and political power the great artists of his time held. Leo X used the art he commissioned from Raphael to associate himself, and by extension the Medici family, not only to the Papacy but Christianity itself, and give both him and his family ruling claim to Rome and all of Italy. Obvious connections can be made between Pope Leo X and the artwork he commissioned. All of the frescoes in the Stanza dell Incendio feature previous Pope Leos, all of whom have Leo X s face. He chose his papal name to purposefully be associated with these men, and would use every artistic avenue to emphasize these comparisons. Before conclusions could be made about rights to Italy, Leo X s authority as Pope had to be confirmed. The tapestries that he hired Raphael to design for the Sistine
Ellis 3 Chapel depict several scenes from the lives of Paul and Peter. Accompanying them are friezes of scenes from Leo X s life. 1 These images accompanied each other in an interesting way. Below the tapestry The Miraculous Draught of Fishes, in which Christ appears in Peter s boat and Christ calls Peter the fisher of men and that he is the rock upon which Christ will build his church, 2 an image of Giovanni di Lorenzo de Medici arriving in Rome, and another of him being elected as Pope (Leo X). This obviously draws associations between Peter being called as the head of Christianity and Giovanni being elevated to the papacy and becoming Pope Leo X. This relates Christ s appointment of Peter to the appointment of new popes, and gives divine authority to the system that chose Leo X. The Pope is supposedly chosen by God, but in the time of Leo X, unrest was brewing in the North especially, and doubt was creeping in the minds of the people. Having these two works next to each other would remind anyone worshipping in the Sistine Chapel that, while he may have been elected by a council, Leo X was actually chosen by God the way Peter was chosen by Christ, thus reinforcing his claim to the papacy and his authority over the Church. Leo X did not stop at his own authority, however. He also wanted to assert the right of the Medici family to ecclesial power. The portrait that Leo X commissioned 1 Lewine, Carol F. Aries, Taurus, and Gemini in Raphael s Sacrifice at Lystra. The Art Bulletin 72, no. 2 (June 1990): 271-291. College Art Association. 2 2 Jones, Roger and Nicholas Penny. Raphael. London: Yale University Press, 1983. 141
Ellis 4 from Raphael shows him sitting at a table looking off to the side. On the table sits a bell and a Bible, open to a passage about John the Baptist. It is unsurprising that a pope is being depicted with religious text it is his job, and what he devoted his life to. However, unlike other papal portraits, Leo X is accompanied by Giulio de Medici and Luigi de Rossi. They are other clergymen, but more importantly, both part of the Medici family. This painting shows the Pope surrounded by family, and all of them are associated with the papacy. One of them even goes on to become Clement VII. All three of them are dressed in red, the traditional papal color. 3 It would be assumed that this is a private scene, but whether or not the painting shows a private scene, it itself would have been on display regardless; the audience would have recognized that it was not a public event, but would have seen Leo X s companions in the papal colors, thus associating them with the papacy. Both the bell and Bible in this portrait also link the Medici family to the authority of the Catholic Church. According to Nelson Minnich, bells had a variety of uses for the Renaissance clergy. They were a symbol of a preacher who needs first to correct his own faults before he calls others to faith and reform, 4 as well as being used in several religious ceremonies. Beyond that, though, this religious tool is also engraved with the personal coat of arms of Leo X, two symbols of the Medici family, and the Medici 3 Minnich, Nelson H. Raphael s Portrait Leo X with Cardinals Giulio de Medici and Luigi de Rossi : A Religious Interpretation. Renaissance Quarterly 56, no. 4 (Winter 2003): 1005-1052. The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Renaissance Society of America. 1014 4 Minnich, Raphael s Portrait Leo X with Cardinals 1021
Ellis 5 insignia 5. This deeply connects the Medici family with Christian rituals. The Bible, similarly, connects the Medici family with the practice of Christianity. The Bible is the foundation of Christianity, the most read book in the world, the one unifying force of Western culture. The Bible that Pope Leo X has in his portrait was made for him by his father Lorenzo, inscribed with the Medici crest 6. Depicting these men deeply involved in the church with the cornerstone of Christianity marked by the Medici family crest entwines those two concepts (the political force with the cultural behemoth) to their very core. Minnich, though mostly focused on the religious significance of the portrait, cannot avoid the obvious familial ties also being expressed. He acknowledges how unusual it was to have multiple people presented in a portrait, especially political or religious ones 7, and reveals that the painting was originally planned to portray just Leo X-- Giulio and Luigi were added later 8. He refers to the Medici as an ecclesiastical dynasty, 9 something that Leo X worked very hard to ensure, by convincing the people that it had always been so. 5 Minnich, Raphael s Portrait Leo X with Cardinals 1018 6 Minnich, Raphael s Portrait Leo X with Cardinals 1022 7 Minnich, Raphael s Portrait Leo X with Cardinals 1027 8 Minnich, Raphael s Portrait Leo X with Cardinals 1014 9 Minnich, Raphael s Portrait Leo X with Cardinals 1031
Ellis 6 In the tapestry The Sacrifice at Lystra, which Raphael designed along with the other tapestries in the Sistine Chapel, the Medici family is implied to be part of a popular Biblical story. This was accomplished through symbolism. Many of the elements present in this piece are common Medici symbols, especially the abundance of zodiac imagery closely associated with the family. According to Carol Lewine, the yoke was a well-known symbol used by rulers 10. It was widely used by Lorenzo de Medici and shows up in many of Leo X s commissioned work. The yoke is also a symbol of the zodiac sign of Libra, Leo X s horoscope 11. Lions are also strongly associated with Rome and the Vatican itself. In the Sacrifice at Lystra, a pair of lions is shown holding a Medici emblem. The Medici family was also closely associated with Mercury, as he was often identified with spring, a crucial season in Medicean dynastic imagery. 12 Not only is Mercury part of the subject of the tapestry (he was whom Paul was mistaken for), but herms (named so for their association with Hermes, the Greek Mercury) are an integral part of the structure of how the tapestries themselves were displayed. Jupiter, the other god whose identity was assumed, was another important figure to the Medici. His sacred laurel became a dynastic emblem, 13 and Leo X was considered the new Jupiter 10 Lewine, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini. 2 11 Ibid. 12 Lewine, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini. 3
Ellis 7 when he became Pope. Furthermore, the astrological symbolism out-of-place in traditional depictions of The Sacrifice at Lystra 14 was common in Medici-commissioned artwork. 15 The frescoes that Raphael did for Leo X in the Stanza dell Incendio also connect the Medici family to the papacy and Christianity, especially the Fire in the Borgo. While it has been subjected to much criticism for having an unusual composition, 16 that composition is a result of Medici influence. The Medici family had an assortment of artists in all disciplines, including scholars of literature, astrology, and philosophy. Giovanni di Lorenzo de Medici was educated surrounded by that environment, and brought it with him to the Vatican when he was elected as Pope. 1718 Most of Leo X s court was made up of Medici courtiers, and it shows. He had a lot of input into the design of the frescoes in the Stanza dell Incendio, which was no doubt influenced both by his education and the people he surrounded himself with. Leo X surrounded himself with artists and thinkers, and the design of Fire in the Borgo is evidence of that. Bembo 13 Lewine, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini. 7 14 Lewine, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini. 9 15 Lewine, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini. 5 16 Reilly, Patricia L. Raphael s Fire in the Borgo and the Italian Pictorial Vernacular. The Art Bulletin 92 no 4 (Dec 2010): 308-318. College Art Association. 310 17 Reilly, Raphael s Fire in the Borgo. 315 18 Lewine, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini. 1
Ellis 8 asserted that literature should be judged by its style rather than its content, 19 and this way of thinking spilled over into the fresco. The most direct, concrete way of linking the Medici family to early Christianity and Rome, however, was how the narrative in the foreground of Fire in the Borgo is depicted. The viewer sees a young man carrying an older man out of the flames on the left side of the fresco to safety. It is accepted that these men are Aeneas and his father Anchises. According to legend, Aeneas goes on to found Rome, making Anchises not only his father but, in a way, the father of Rome itself. In this fresco, Anchises has the face of Cosimo de Medici, 20 the founder of the Medici family. This fresco shows Cosimo as the man from whom the entire empire of Rome sprung. The authority of the papacy itself was under question during this time period as well. Tensions were high between Northern and Southern Europe, and the issue had been raised-- how do they know that the Pope is supposed to have the power he does? Pope Leo X answered through art. Many of the tapestries designed by Raphael and hung in the Sistine Chapel were scenes of the life of Peter. Interactions between Christ and Peter in the Bible was the main evidence the Vatican had that there was meant to be one man in charge of the Church, and those were not coincidentally the interactions depicted. In the Miraculous Draught of Fishes, Christ appears to the Apostles and 19 Reilly, Raphael s Fire in the Borgo. 317 20 Hersey, George L. High Renaissance Art in St. Peter s and the Vatican. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1993. 55
Ellis 9 immediately identifies Peter as the one he would entrust the key to Heaven to. 21 The other figures in that tapestry are almost all still fishing, and Peter is the only one that Christ is actually interacting with. He does not appear to even acknowledge the other men in the boats. It is clear from that scene that he considered Peter the most worthy, most important, of whom he expected the most. Later, in Charge to Peter, Christ is once again shown with the Apostles, and still seems to barely register their presence. All of his attention is on Peter, kneeling before him, whom he addresses. In this scene, Christ asks Peter to look after his flock while he is gone, effectively making him the first Pope. It is the Pope s duty to lead Christianity as it was Peter s duty to lead the burgeoning religion in his own time. Since Peter s authority came from Christ (and therefore God) himself, no one would think to question his right to power. It so follows, then, that if Peter was the first Pope because Christ told him to be, then no other Pope may be questioned as his authority would also come directly from God. All of the scenes shown in these tapestries venerate Peter over the other Apostles. In the Healing of the Lame Man, he calls upon the power of Christ to perform a miracle. 22 Peter is obviously the closest to God one can get without Jesus on Earth, and since Peter is more important than the other Apostles the Pope must also be more important than the other Bishops. These tapestries were hung in a public place-- anyone entering the 21 Jones, Roger and Nicholas Penny. Raphael. London: Yale University Press, 1983 136 22 Jones, Raphael.138
Ellis 10 Sistine Chapel would be reminded of Christ s decision to raise Peter above the other Apostles, and would see the images of Leo X s life beneath them, associating the Pope with Peter even further. The fresco Oath of Leo III in the Stanza dell Incendio also portrays the Pope s authority over the Catholic Church. Leo III was being subjected to similar scrutiny as Leo X in regards to papal power and church doctrine. The fresco shows Leo III on trial, accused of abusing his power. Instead, he announces that God, and not Man, is the Judge of Bishops, 2324 and asks God for forgiveness on behalf of his accusers for questioning His word. In the fresco, Leo III is surrounded by a crowd, witnessing his declaration and Oath that he was free of guilt. Similarly, the tapestries that Leo X commissioned Raphael to design were publicly displayed to assert his own innocence. The figures in the tapestries display power, not elegance, 25 as they were intended to prove a point to their audience. Leo X did not just want to secure papal power for himself, he had much broader plans. With constant external threats, the city states of Italy were in danger of being entirely overrun by invading Turks. Their best hope, as Leo X saw it, was to be unified and centralized under one continuous power-- The Medici family. Since Leo X s papacy 23 Jones, Raphael. 150 24 Hersey, High Renaissance Art. 152 25 Jones, Raphael. 142
Ellis 11 had included the Medici family, and the papacy s legitimacy had been defended, Leo X extended those rights to cover the Medici family, and the whole Italian peninsula. His papal portrait included two of his family members-- one of which went on to become Pope Clement VII. 26 While those future events could not have been predicted, they were certainly the best case scenario. This portrait done by Raphael went through several transformations: originally, it was meant to just depict the Pope. 27 Then he changed the design to include the Pope s ecclesiastic family members. Then it became a painting of two Popes, when Clement VII was elected. This evolution of content (partially by design, partially by outside forces) shows the hopeful formation of a dynasty. Leo X wanted his cousins to be associated with his own Papacy, to make it natural that they, and his other family members, were meant for the role. Pope Leo X may have wanted to unite the world under one God, 28 but more importantly he wanted that unification to happen under one Family. The tapestry Sacrifice at Lystra, while holding astrological importance to Leo X, also referenced Rome and Italy as a whole. The yoke image, so beloved by Lorenzo and Leo, also references Libra. The astrological sign Libra is associated with the founding of 26 Minnich, Raphael s Portrait Leo X with Cardinals 1017 27 Minnich, Raphael s Portrait Leo X with Cardinals 1014 28 Minnich, Raphael s Portrait Leo X with Cardinals 1035
Ellis 12 Rome itself, 29 and can be considered a connection between the Medici family and the great empire which the Renaissance loved. Gemini, represented in the tapestry by the two youths near the center-front, also represents Castor and Pollux: ancient guardians of Rome. 30 Leo X and his brother Giuliano de Medici were considered a contemporary Castor and Pollux, since they were both great rulers who were also honorary citizens of Rome. 31 This close relationship between living Medici brothers and mythological heroes would have placed the Medici family in Rome s time of power--a power they would have liked to get back. This tapestry contextualizes the brothers as Rome s protectors, something Leo X wanted to be. The fresco Fire in the Borgo also anachronistically places the Medici family in Rome s history. The most straightforward way it does so is by depicting Leo IV protecting the city from disaster, as Leo X hoped to do in his own times. However, this is given little visual importance. Leo IV is near the top-center of the composition, but is small, and not the focus. Much larger and more active in the scene are the townspeople rushing to put out the fires and/or escape. This is the main action of the piece, how the panic of the event is communicated, and where the viewer s attention and sympathies are drawn. Among these people are Aeneas and his family, fleeing the fires in the Borgo 29 Lewine, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini. 2 30 Lewine, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini. 6 31 Ibid.
Ellis 13 district as they fled the fires of Troy. 32 In their flight from the city, Aeneas carries his father Anchises on his back. As previously mentioned, Anchises in this fresco has the features of Cosimo de Medici, Leo X s forefather and the man who began the Medici ascent to power. This resemblance implies that the Medici family was part of the founding of Rome, that they had been part of its history all along, despite being a relatively new addition to the Italian political scene. Leo X s wish to be seen as a protective figure is seen in The Battle of Ostia as well. In this fresco, Pope Leo IV watches as his victorious defending army rounds up the last of the invading Saracens. Not only did Leo IV save Rome from a fire, he was also credited with saving it from these Muslim invaders by fortifying the Vatican. 33 At the time this fresco was painted, Italy was once again threatened by a Muslim army, although in Leo X s time it was the Turks. He hoped that he would be similarly victorious against this new enemy. 34 This fresco shows a previous Leo being triumphant over an incredibly similar threat, with the contemporary Leo s face. This shows a potential outcome for the worried Italians. The painting implies that if they allow Leo X to lead them, they would be victorious again; it depicts him as the region s protector in the face of outside threat not just in his own time, but throughout history. 32 Rowland, Ingrid D. The Vatican Stanze. In The Cambridge Companion to Raphael, edited by Marcia B. Hall, 95-11. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. 115 33 Rowland, The Vatican Stanze. 117 34 Hersey, High Renaissance Art. 156
Ellis 14 The Pope s temporal influence beyond Christianity is also displayed in the Stanza dell Incendio. In The Coronation of Charlemagne, King Charlemagne asks Pope Leo III for the right to rule France. It shows the great King kneeling at Pope Leo III s feet, surrounded by the public. Everyone is watching the coronation; a clear line leads the viewer from the bottom left of the fresco to the top right, where Leo III is putting the crown on Charlemagne s head. The most important detail of this scene is that Charlemagne asked Leo III to name him King of France, thus saying that the Pope has control over the monarchies of Christian nations. 3536 This is a power that Leo X desperately wanted to exercise. King Francis I challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, and Leo X hoped to reassert the papal supremacy by crowning the French King himself. 37 This tradition that the Pope has the right to decide who rules in other countries gives him much, much farther-reaching power than just the hierarchy of his own religion, which was an incredibly potent power to begin with. Leo X saw that Rome, and all of Italy, was in an unstable place at the time of his papacy. Doubts about the papal system were rising all over Europe, invaders were moving in from the East, and the region was too decentralized to effectively defend itself against either. He wanted to position himself as the protector of Rome, the leader 35 Rowland, The Vatican Stanze 117 36 Hersey, High Renaissance Art. 153 37 Jones, Raphael. 150
Ellis 15 of what was not yet a nation. Leo X wanted Italy to become a nation, under his hand. Most of all, however, Leo X wanted the Medici family to follow in his rule; he wanted to start a dynasty of successive Popes from the Medici family, and to use the papacy as a position of temporal authority. The artwork he commissioned from Raphael reflects these goals; every piece he paid for had some connection between himself, the Medici family, the power of the Church, and the history of Rome and Italy that made his family s rise to power seem natural, inevitable, and like it had already happened centuries before.
Ellis 16 Bibliography Jones, Roger and Nicholas Penny. Raphael. London: Yale University Press, 1983 Lewine, Carol F. Aries, Taurus, and Gemini in Raphael s Sacrifice at Lystra. The Art Bulletin 72, no. 2 (June 1990): 271-291. College Art Association. Minnich, Nelson H. Raphael s Portrait Leo X with Cardinals Giulio de Medici and Luigi de Rossi : A Religious Interpretation. Renaissance Quarterly 56, no. 4 (Winter 2003): 1005-1052. The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Renaissance Society of America. Reilly, Patricia L. Raphael s Fire in the Borgo and the Italian Pictorial Vernacular. The Art Bulletin 92 no 4 (Dec 2010): 308-318. College Art Association. Hersey, George L. High Renaissance Art in St. Peter s and the Vatican. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1993. Rowland, Ingrid D. The Vatican Stanze. In The Cambridge Companion to Raphael, edited by Marcia B. Hall, 95-11. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Sherr, Richard. A New Document concerning Raphael s Portrait of Leo X. The Burlington Magazine Vol. 125, No. 958 (Jan 1983): 31-32. The Burlington Magazine Publications Ltd.