Source #1: Statement (Affidavit) of Cardinal Bellarmine to Galileo, 1616 Subtext: On February 19, 1616, the Holy Office of the Pope determined the teachings of Copernicus and the heliocentric theory to be foolish and absurd because it was erroneous in faith". Cardinal Roberto Bellarmine, an enthusiast of the Counter Reformation and member of the Sacred Congregation of the Index (of Banned Books), supported the banning of the Copernican teachings as heresy. May 26, 1616 We, Roberto Cardinal Bellarmine, having heard that it is calumniously reported that Signor Gallileo Galilei has in our hand abjured (rejected) and has also been punished with salutary penance, and being requested to state the truth as to this, declare that the said Galileo has not abjured (rejected), either in our hand, or the hand of any other person here in Rome, or anywhere else, so far as we know any opinion or doctrine held by him; neither has any statuary penance been imposed on him; but that only the declaration made by the Holy Father and published by the Sacred Congregation of the Index has been notified to him, wherein it is set forth that the doctrine attributed to Copernicus, that the Earth moves around the Sun, and that the Sun is stationary in the centre of the world and does not move from east to west, is contrary to the Holy Scriptures and therefore cannot be defended or held. In witness whereof we have written and subscribed these presents with our hand this twenty-sixth day of May, 1616. Source: http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/galileo/galileo.html
Source #2: Galileo, Introduction to A Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems, 1632 Subtext: In 1632, Galileo completed The Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems comparing the Copernican (heliocentric) system with the traditional Ptolemaic (geocentric) system. Written in the form of a three act play, in Italian, Galileo attempted to make his beliefs more reader friendly. The preface explains his beliefs and goals with the book. TO THE DISCERNING READER Several years ago there was published in Rome a salutary edict which, in order to obviate the dangerous tendencies of our present age, imposed a seasonable silence upon the Pythagorean opinion that the earth moves There were those who impudently asserted that this decree had its origin not injudicious inquire, but in passion none too well informed Complaints were to be heard that advisers who were totally unskilled at astronomical observations ought not to clip the wings of reflective intellects by means of rash prohibitions. Upon hearing such carping insolence, my zeal could not be contained. Being thoroughly informed about that prudent determination, I decided to appear openly in the theater of the world as a witness of the sober truth To this end I have taken the Copernican side in the discourse, proceeding as with a pure mathematical hypothesis and striving by every artipee to represent it as superior to supposing the earth motionless Three principal headings are treated First, I shall try to show that all experiments practicable upon the earth are insufficient measures for proving its mobility, since they are indiferently adaptable to an earth in motion or at rest. I hope in so doing to reveal many observations unknown to the ancients. Secondly, the celestial phenomena will be examined strengthening the Copernican hypothesis until it might seem that this must triumph absolutely. Here new reflections are adjoined which might be used in order to simplfy astronomy, though not because of any necessity imported by nature I hope that from these considerations the world will come to know that if other nations have navigated more, we have not theorized less. It is not from failing to take count of what others have thought that we have yielded to asserting that the earth is motionless, and holding the contrary to be a mere mathematical caprice, but (if for nothing else) for those reasons that are supplied by piety, religion, the knowledge of Divine Omnipotence, and a consciousness of the limitations of the human mind I have thought it most appropriate to explain these concepts in the form of dialogues, which, now being restricted to the rigorous observance of mathematical laws, make room also for digressions which are sometimes no less interesting than the principal argument. Source: http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/galileo/galileo.html The Historical Question: Was Galileo first and foremost a Catholic or a Scientist?
Source #3: Galileo's First Deposition, 12 April 1633 Subtext: In 1632, Galileo completed The Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems comparing the Copernican (heliocentric) system with the traditional Ptolemaic (geocentric) system. In 1633, Galileo was ordered to stand trial on suspicion of heresy, for holding as true the false doctrine taught by some that the sun is the center of the world", against the 1616 condemnation, since "it was decided at the Holy Office would give you[galileo] an injunction to abandon this doctrine, not to teach it to others, not to defend it, and not to treat of it; and that if you did not acquiesce in this injunction, you should be imprisoned". While threatened with physical torture, a panel of Catholic theologians interrogated Galileo four times. This is the first deposition. Summoned, there appeared personally in Rome Galileo, Florentine, seventy years old, who, having taken a formal oath to tell the truth, was asked by the Fathers the following: Q: Whether he came of his own accord, or was called, or was ordered by someone to come to Rome, and by whom. wanted to have my book printed. The occasion for my being in Rome in the year 1616 was that, having heard objections to Nicolaus Copernicus's opinion on the earth's motion, the sun's stability, and the arrangement of the heavenly spheres, in order to be sure of holding only holy and Catholic opinions, I came to hear what was proper to hold in regard to this topic... A: In Florence the Father Inquisitor ordered me to come to Rome and present myself to the Holy Office Q. Whether he knows or can guess the reason why he was ordered to Rome. A. I imagine that the reason why I have been ordered to present myself to the Holy Office in Rome is to account for my recently printed book. I imagine this because of the injunction to the printer and myself, a few days before I was ordered to come to Rome; not to issue anymore of these book; and similarly because the printer was by the Father Inquisitor to send the original manuscript of my book to the Holy Office in Rome. Q: That he explain the character of the book on account of which he thinks he was ordered to come to Rome. A: It is a book written in dialogue form, and it treats of the constitution of the world, that is, of the two chief systems, and the arrangement of the heavens and the elements. Q: Whether, if he were shown the said book, he is prepared to identify it as his. A: I hope so; I hope that if the book is shown me I shall recognize it. [And having been shown one of the books printed in Florence in 1632] I know this book very well; it is one of those printed in Florence; and I acknowledge it as mine and written by me. Q: Whether he was in Rome other times, especially in the year 1616,and for what occasion. A: I was in Rome in the year 1616; then I was here in the second year of His Holiness Urban VIII's pontificate; and lastly I was here three years ago, the occasion being that I Q: Since, as he says, he came to Rome to be able to have the resolution and the truth regarding the above [heliocentric teaching of Copernicus], what then was decided about this matter. A: [It] is repugnant to Holy Scripture and is to be admitted only suppositionally, in the way that Copernicus takes it. Q: What the Most Eminent Bellarmine told him about the said decision. A: Lord Cardinal Bellarmine told me that Copernicus's opinion could be held suppositionally, as Copernicus himself had held it Q: Whether he obtained any permission to write the book identified by himself, which he later sent to the printer. A: To obtain permission to print the above-mentioned book, although I was receiving profitable offers from France, Germany, and Venice, I refused them and spontaneously came to Rome three years ago to place it into the hands of the chief censor, namely the Master of the Sacred Palace, giving him absolute authority to add, delete, and change as he saw fit. After having it examined very diligently by his associate Father Visconti, the said Master of the Sacred Palace reviewed it again himself and licensed it; that is, having approved the book, he gave me permission but ordered to have the book printed in Rome. While I was in Florence, the plague broke out and commerce was topped; so, seeing that I could not come to Rome, by correspondence I requested of the same Master of the Sacred Palace permission for the book to be printed in Florence. and, having negotiated with the Father Inquisitor, printed it, observing strictly every order given by the Father Master of the Sacred Palace. I, Galileo Galilei, have testified as above. Source: Maurice A. Finocchiaro, ed. The Essential Galileo, 2008.
Source #4: Pope Urban VIII, Papal Condemnation, 1633 June 22 Subtext: In 1632, Galileo completed The Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems comparing the Copernican (heliocentric) system with the traditional Ptolemaic (geocentric) system. In 1633, Galileo was ordered to stand trial on suspicion of heresy and was found guilty on June 22, 1633. Pope Urban VIII, who served as head of Catholic Church from 1623 to 1644, served during the Counter Reformation. He supported the arts and sciences, missionary movements like the Jesuits, and expanded the papal debt. Whereas you, Galileo, son of the late Vaincenzo Galilei, Florentine, aged seventy years, were in the year 1615 denounced to this Holy Office for holding as true the false doctrine taught by some that the Sun is the center of the world and immovable and that the Earth moves, and also with a diurnal motion; for having disciples to whom you taught the same doctrine; for holding correspondence with certain mathematicians of Germany concerning the same; wherein you developed the same doctrine as true; and for replying to the objections from the Holy Scriptures, which from time to time were urged against it, by glossing the said Scriptures according to your own meaning This Holy Tribunal being therefore of intention to proceed against the disorder and mischief thence resulting, which went on increasing to the prejudice of the Holy Faith, by command of His Holiness and of the Most Eminent Lords Cardinals of this supreme and universal Inquisition, the two propositions of the stability of the Sun and the motion of the Earth were by the theological Qualifiers And in order that a doctrine so pernicious (harmful) might be wholly rooted out and not insinuate (imply) itself further to the grave prejudice of Catholic truth, a decree was issued by the Holy Congregation of the Index prohibiting the books which treat of this doctrine and declaring the doctrine itself to be false and wholly contrary to the sacred and divine Scripture. And whereas a book appeared here recently, printed last year at Florence, the title of which shows that you were the author, this title being: Dialogue of Galileo Galilei on the Great World System: ; and whereas the Holy Congregation was afterward informed that through the publication of said book the false opinion of the motion of the Earth and the stability of the Sun was daily gaining round, the said book was taken into careful consideration, and in it there was discovered a patent violation of the aforesaid injunction that had been imposed upon you, for in this book you have defended the said opinion previously condemned and to your face declared to be so, although in the said book you strive by various devices to produce the impression that you leave it undecided, and in express terms as probably: which, however, is a most grievous error, as an opinion can in no wise be probable which has been declared and defined to be contrary to divine Scripture. Therefore by our order you were cited before this Holy office, where, being examined upon our oath, you acknowledged the book to be written and published by you. You confessed that you began to write the said book about ten or twelve years ago, after the command had been imposed upon you as above; that you requested license to print it without, however, intimating to those who granted you this license that you had been commanded not to hold, defend, or teach the doctrine in question in any way whatever. You likewise confessed that the writing of the said book is in many places drawn up in such a form that the reader might fancy that the arguments brought forward on the false side And in order that this your grave and pernicious error and transgression may not remain altogether unpunished and that you may be more cautious in the future and an example to others that they may abstain from similar delinquencies, we ordain that the book of the Dialogues of Galileo Galilei be prohibited by public edict. We condemn you to the formal prison of this Holy office during our pleasure [Signed:] F. Cardinal of Ascoli B. Cardinal Gessi G. Cardinal Bentivoglio F. Cardinal Verospi Fr. D. Cardinal of Cremona M. Cardinal Ginetti Fr. Ant. s Cardinal of. S. Onofrio Source: http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/galileo/condemnation.html
Source #5: Galileo-Kepler Letters, 1597 Subtext: Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was a German Protestant, mathematician and astronomer. Using the data collected during his time as an assistant to Tycho Brahe, he discovered the laws of planetary motion. Both Galileo and Brahe used telescopes to study astronomy, which caused them to write to each other seeking advice on scientific matters. In 1597, Galileo taught at the University of Padua (Italy). [Galileo to Kepler, 1597]...Like you, I accepted the Copernican position several years ago and discovered from thence the causes of many natural effects which are doubtless inexplicable by the current theories. I have written up many of my reasons and refutations on the subject, but I have not dared until now to bring them into the open, being warned by the fortunes of Copernicus himself, our master, who procured immortal fame among a few but stepped down among the great crowd (for the foolish are numerous), only to be derided and dishonored. I would dare publish my thoughts if there were many like you; but, since there are not, I shall forebear... [Kepler to Galileo, 1597]...I could only have wished that you, who have so profound an insight, would choose another way. You advise us, by your personal example, and in discreetly veiled fashion, to retreat before the general ignorance and not to expose ourselves or heedlessly to oppose the violent attacks of the mob of scholars But after a tremendous task has been begun in our time, first by Copernicus and then by many very learned mathematicians, and when the assertion that the Earth moves can no longer be considered something new, would it not be much better to pull the wagon to its goal by our joint efforts, now that we have got it under way, and gradually, with powerful voices, to shout down the common herd, which really does not weigh the arguments very carefully? Thus perhaps by cleverness we may bring it to a knowledge of the truth. With your arguments you would at the same time help your comrades who endure so many unjust judgments, for they would obtain either comfort from your agreement or protection from your influential position. It is not only your Italians who cannot believe that they move if they do not feel it, but we in Germany also do not by any means endear ourselves with this idea. Yet there are ways by which we protect ourselves against these difficulties... Be of good cheer, Galileo, and come out publicly. If I judge correctly, there are only a few of the distinguished mathematicians of Europe who would part company with us, so great is the power of truth. If Italy seems a less favorable place for your publication, and if you look for difficulties there, perhaps Germany will allow us this freedom. Source: http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/galileo/letterkepler.html
Source #6: Galileo s Letter to Benedetto Castelli, 21 December 1613 Subtext: Benedetto Castelli (1578-1643) was an Italian monk that studied under Galileo at the University of Padua (Italy) from 1604-1607. As a member of the Benedictine Friar, he helped Galileo publish many of his early works on sun spots as well as he responded to Galileo s zealot Jesuit critics. In 1613, Galileo wrote this letter to Castelli in response to an inquiry made by Castelli on the Copernican system. In 1615, the letter was published in the German states in Lettera a Madama Cristina di Lorena Granduchessa di Toscana. Castelli obtained many high ranking Catholic positions in Rome; he also remained a supporter of Galileo. Very Reverend Father and My Most Respectable Sir: For the Holy Scripture and nature both equally derive from the divine Word, the former as the dictation of the Holy Spirit, the latter as the most obedient executrix of God's commands; moreover, in order to adapt itself to the understanding of all people, it was appropriate for the Scripture to say many things which are different from absolute truth ; on the other hand, nature is inexorable (unalterable) and immutable, and she does not care at all whether or not her recondite (complex) reasons are revealed to human understanding, and so she never transgresses the terms of the laws imposed on her; therefore, whatever sensory experience places before our eyes or necessary demonstrations prove to us concerning natural effects should not in any way be called into question on account of scriptural passages whose words appear to have a different meaning, since not every statement of the Scripture is bound to obligations as severely as each effect of nature... Given this, and moreover it being obvious that two truths can never contradict each other, the task of wise interpreters is to strive to find the true meanings of scriptural passages agreeing with those physical conclusions of which we are already certain and sure from clear sensory experience or from necessary demonstrations I do not think it necessary to believe that the same God who has furnished us with senses, language, and intellect would want to bypass their use and give us by other means the information we can obtain with them. This applies especially to those sciences about which one can read only very small phrases and scattered conclusions in the Scripture, as is particularly the case for astronomy, of which it contains such a small portion that one does not even find in it the names of all the planets; but if the first sacred writers had been thinking of persuading the people about the arrangement and the movements of the heavenly bodies, they would not have treated of them so sparsely, which is to say almost nothing in comparison to the infinity of very lofty and admirable conclusions contained in such a science. Florence, December, 21, 1613 To Your Very Reverend Paternity. Your Most Affectionate Servant, Galileo Galilei Source: http://inters.org/galilei-benedetto-castelli
Source #7: Galileo s Confession, 1633 Subtext: In 1632, Galileo completed The Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems comparing the Copernican (heliocentric) system with the traditional Ptolemaic (geocentric) system. In 1633, Galileo was ordered to stand trial on suspicion of heresy and was found guilty on June 22, 1633. The Holy Tribunal presented Galileo its draft text of his disavowing of the heliocentric theory. He discovered two clauses so objectionable that he could not be convinced to concede them: One suggested he had lapsed in his behavior as a good Catholic, the other that he had acted deceitfully in obtaining the Imprimatur for the Dialogue. The church officials granted his request to strike these references from the script. Dressed in the white robe of the penitent, Galileo knelt and stated the following on June 22, 1633. I, Galileo, son of the late Vincenzio Galilei, Florentine, aged 70 years, arraigned personally before this tribunal and kneeling before you, most Eminent and Reverend Lord Cardinals, Inquisitor-Generals against heretical depravity throughout the Christian commonwealth having before my eyes and touching with my hands the Holy Gospels, swear that I have always believed, I believe now, and with God's help I will in future believe all that is held, preached, and taught by the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church. But whereas - after having been admonished by this Holy Office entirely to abandon the false opinion that the Sun's the center of the world and immovable, and that the Earth is not the center of the same and that it moves, and that I must not hold, defend, nor teach in any manner whatever, either orally or in writing, the said false doctrine and after it had been notified to me that the said doctrine was contrary to Holy Writ - I wrote and caused to be printed a book in which I treat of the already condemned doctrine, and adduce arguments of much efficacy in its favor, without arriving at any solution. I have been judged vehemently suspected of heresy, that is, of having held and believed that the Sun is the center of the world and immovable, and that the Earth is not the center and moves. Therefore, wishing to remove from the minds of your Eminences and of all faithful Christians this vehement suspicion justly conceived against me, I abjure with a sincere heart and unfeigned faith, I curse and detest the said errors and heresies, and generally all and every error and sect contrary to the Holy Catholic Church. And I swear that for the future I will never again say nor assert in speaking or writing such things as may bring upon me similar suspicion; and if I know any heretic, or person suspected of heresy, I will denounce him to this Holy Office or to the Inquisitor or Ordinary of the place where I may be. I also swear and promise to adopt and observe entirely all the penances which have been or may be imposed on me by this Holy Office. And if I contravene any of these said promises, protests, or oaths (which God forbids), I submit myself to all the pains and penalties imposed and promulgated (spread) by the Sacred Canons and other Decrees, general and particular, against such offenders. So help me God and these His Holy Gospels, which I touch with my own hands. I, the said Galileo Galilei, have abjured, sworn, promised, and bound myself as above; and in witness of the truth, with my own hand have subscribed the present document of my abjuration, and have recited it word by word in Rome, at the Convent of the Minerva, this 22nd day of June 1633. I, Galileo Galilei, have abjured as above, with my own hand. Source: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1630galileo.asp