Josh Dyer Ms. Wendelken Advanced Placement English May 19, 1999 Beowulf: A Christian Epic with Pagan Influences History is practically teeming with questions, yet many remain unanswered. The riddle of Beowulf has eluded scholars for centuries. Is it only one of a number of poems of the same kind? Is it the best of these poems? Does it rest on an earlier poem on the same subject? We cannot be sure (Ogilvy 11). One certainty is that it provides much insight into the culture of the Anglo-Saxons. It also raises the issue of what deity it refers to. Was the author of Beowulf praising the pagan gods, or was it intended to be a testament to the power and glory of Christ? Perhaps the surviving manuscript is the work of a Christian fascinated with the occult society of the past. Many uncertainties abound as to the religion of the author, but most scholars agree he was Christian. Beowulf, an Old English epic, contains many allusions to pagan folklore, but it was transcribed from the oral tradition by a Christian, who includes many Judeo-Christian beliefs within the work. The surviving manuscript of Beowulf, consisting of 3,182 lines, has a rich, deep history of over a thousand years. No one knows exactly when it was composed, or by whom, or why. Only a single manuscript managed to survive King Henry VIII s destruction of the monasteries. Lawrence Nowell, a sixteenth century scholar, may be responsible for preserving Beowulf. However, careless binding, combined with a fire, led to the serious deterioration of the manuscript. Many gaps have been left, only to be filled by guesswork and even ultraviolet photography. What is remarkable is that we have a single surviving account of what may have
Dyer 2 been a thriving epic tradition. Nevertheless, Beowulf provides great insight into Old English social and political life (Raffel 9). Anglo-Saxon society has a fascinating history of its own. Scholars believe Beowulf was composed in England around the eighth century AD, and the culture of that time was reflected on the Geats and Danes in the poem. The culture of the Anglo-Saxons is best described as rigidly feudal, rudely civilized, extremely warlike, and newly Christian. Society glorified war, death, and fame. However, mundane daily activities, such as farming, fishing, and human care were denigrated. Slavery was completely taken for granted. In fact, slaves were never even included when a head count was made (Raffel 11). While the imagery of battle may arouse such thoughts as hacking, slashing, and blood, the Anglo-Saxons saw it in a different respect. For them, battle was a way of life. It was instilled in their blood, and all worthy members of society prepared to give their life on the battlefield (Raffel 14). The Anglo-Saxons lived a lifestyle considerably different from ours, and their differing culture makes Beowulf an even more interesting work to study. The purpose of Beowulf is to document the noble adventures of a king from his youth to his old age. It is an aristocratic poem, concerned only with kings and kingship. Strength and courage are virtues for both the follower and the followed. Loyalty to one s king is highly stressed (Raffel 10). Beowulf was composed roughly four centuries before the Norman Conquest of England, in the eighth century. Much of the poem is ruminative, rather than narrative. Storytelling and reminiscing were important Anglo-Saxon activities, enjoyed frequently at the dinner table, and the content of the poem parallels reality. The three battles between Grendel, his mother, and the dragon occupy only a small part of the epic. Reminisces are more important
Dyer 3 than battles, and they take much longer in the telling (Raffel 11). These tales, sung by a minstrel, represent the true meaning of epic and oral tradition. Although Beowulf is thought to have been put down in writing by a Christian, it still makes many references to pagan folklore. One of the more obscure examples is the genealogy of its characters. To explore this idea, one must study more than the work itself to notice the outstanding pagan influences. Names such as Beowulf, Hrothgar, Welthow, and Wiglaf stem from the old pagan deities, such as Woden, Balder, and Geat. Also, Beowulf is considered by many to be a Germanic Hercules. By alluding to Greek mythology, one directly relates the two non-christian religions. Fantastic creatures also tend to come from pagan folklore. Monsters, such as dragons and trolls, are some of the more popular ones still mentioned in fairy tales today. There is a link between trolls and Grendel, for it may be that Grendel himself is a troll. According to folklore, trolls must be fought barehanded, and they turn to stone when exposed to sunlight. This would explain why he only attacked Herot at night. It also means that Beowulf fought him barehanded not only out of pride, but out of necessity as well (Ogilvy 89). Beowulf s funeral consists of a cremation ceremony, built upon a pyre. It is strictly a pagan ritual. Few Christians would have the audacity to describe it, for that may well constitute sacrilege. At the time the epic was written, cremation, along with many other old practices, was suppressed, censured, and discouraged by the church. The building of Beowulf s monument by the sea strays even further from the church s doctrine, and therefore only the most unscrupulous of Christians would dare record the event (Chambers 122). Besides the pagan references and practices, there are common Christian elements not present in Beowulf that would make it appear non-christian in nature. One is the complete lack of allusion to Christ, the Cross, the Virgin, or the Trinity. Another is the specific religious detail
Dyer 4 a Christian writer would use in the poem. If a monk rewrote it, then it would be logical for it to have many references to Christ, rather than God alone (Chambers 125). It would be just as easy to make a reference to Christ as one to God (Chambers 126). However, the concept of God applies to many other religions besides Christianity. One of the most troublesome complications in determining the religion of Beowulf s author is the loss of information over time. It is the only work of literature from its time, for no other Anglo-Saxon poetry is known to exist. Certainly, no other secular poetry is known to exist (Ogilvy 10). An excellent example of the plight faced by both historians and literary scholars is the Elizabethan Theater. What if there was only one surviving Shakespearean drama? What if we only had sketchy information about the Globe Theater? If this were true, then we would be in the dark about Shakespeare in much the same way as we are about Beowulf (Ogilvy 11). Another mystifying occurrence in the poem is that it contains no allusions to the Norse gods, but it also contains only sketchy allusions to God (Ogilvy 12). The question over religion has been a serious topic of debate among scholars for centuries. One of the more pagan features in Beowulf is the cremation ceremony and funeral at the end. This may be a pagan practice observed by a Christian, for there are small details that are inconsistent with actual archeological findings. After Christianity had taken its hold on Europe, puritanical Christians shunned and eschewed former pagan practices. However, there were many Christians, some only newly converted, who still had an interest in the old ways. Even a sincere Christian would most likely document the funeral. If the church disapproved, it still didn t taboo some of the old ways. It is even possible that people held on to the old practices (Chambers 123).
Dyer 5 There are many features, both in Beowulf and sixth century England, that a pagan would include and a Christian exclude. The funeral is a prime example, for a Christian would exclude the most secular aspects, while a pagan would describe every detail. Also, the translator of Beowulf includes, although vaguely, references to gods and offerings. A Christian may leave them reluctantly, but a pagan would naturally include them. A Christian author would most likely omit the most pagan of features. However, the old practices were still remembered by everyone living at that time, and a pagan would be quick to include them in any work (Chambers 123). Robert P. Creed, an expert in Old English studies, believes that Beowulf is the work of a Christian poet. He also recognizes the argument that it was merely translated by a monkish interpolator, since the setting is four centuries before the introduction of Christianity (140). Mr. Creed has put forth speculation as to who put the poem down in writing. He believes the author may have been a Christian minstrel who traveled about, telling the story of the noble Geatish hero. To this minstrel, the notion that this warrior was not a Christian was appalling. He believed Beowulf s actions showed that he was a faithful servant of God. God is the fountain of all virtue, and the noblest adventure of all was that of Christ s. Therefore, the noble hero would have to imitate Christ (141-142). Almost all scholars believe the author must have been Christian, but they aren t sure if he was a layman, a monk, or another educated religious figure (Ogilvy 23). Beowulf contains many examples of symbolism that relate to Judeo-Christian concepts. One symbol is the battle with Grendel. As Beowulf and the evil monster battle in Herot, it becomes symbolic of the entire world and the struggle of good and evil in it (Creed 142). Another is Beowulf s descent into the evil lake. Anglo-Saxon audiences would recognize this
Dyer 6 lake as a version of Hell. The teachings they heard associated hell with wickedness, a lack of sunlight, and breeding monsters. The lake represents all of these ideas. A third example of symbolism is Beowulf himself, after defeating Grendel s mother. The hero, bringing light to Hrothgar s hall, is himself surrounded by a glow. This radiant glow is symbolic of anyone who is holy (Creed 143). Even the cremation has some Christian symbolism in it. The author emphasizes in line 3155 that Heaven swallowed the billowing smoke (Creed 144). Allegorically speaking, Beowulf is much like Christ, for he saves his own people from death and destruction. It is likely that the written version of Beowulf is intended for a Christian audience. The audience of the time would be acquainted with Christian principles and doctrines. Also, it was the Christian author who gave the work its surviving shape and tone, through writing. Scholars agree that the work contains many pagan references. However, these are purposefully included by the Christian poet only as a means of arousing sympathy for the foolish pagan beliefs of the past (Ogilvy 169). There is some evidence that Beowulf has a didactic purpose. It may have been written in order to teach. There is some Christian allegory to be found in the story of Beowulf s adventures. Much of the symbolism is thought to have been a form of moral instruction. One expert, Dr. David Howlett, has put forth a theory on the identity of the author. He believes the author cunningly placed his signature in lines 887 and 888 of the poem. When read in reverse in Old English, the lines say, Stan Aethel, son of Ing, alone performed the daring deed (Anonymous 50). Dr. Howlett believes the author must be Aethelstan, the chaplain of the ninth century court of King Alfred the Great. King Alfred was a strong supporter of scholarly studies, and Beowulf could have been an instructional work for his grandson, also named Aethelstan.
Dyer 7 The story of a noble king who fights evil and saves his people could have been used to teach a prince how to be a king. Dr. Howlett s theory, however, is under extreme criticism (Anonymous 52). Beowulf is brought to us through Christianity. Whether it is pagan or not, the Christian who put it in writing is responsible for saving this incredible work of literature. It is intended to be a Christian epic. It documents the story of a warrior who defeats beings descended directly from Cain. It also recounts how he saved his own people from death and destruction. One of the most important goals of an epic is to idealize its people s beliefs. Not only does Beowulf exemplify the Anglo-Saxons virtues of strength, courage, and nobility, but it is also a testament to their Christian beliefs. It contains many pagan influences. However, these are merely a result of the influence the old ways still had on the Anglo-Saxons. If anything, these influences are included as a teaching tool to Christianity. When the author put Beowulf into writing, he had one important goal: to reach out to others and teach them of the power and glory of God.
Dyer 8 Works Cited Anonymous. Who s Afraid of Beowulf? The New Yorker. December 23 & 30, 1996, pp. 50-52. Chambers, R. W. Beowulf: An Introduction to the Study of the Poem with A Discussion of the Stories of Offa and Finn. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge at the University Press, 1967. Creed, Robert P., in afterword. Beowulf. New York: Mentor Publishing, 1963. Ogilvy, J. D. A. and Donald Baker. Reading Beowulf. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Publishing, 1983. Raffel, Burton, in introduction. Beowulf. New York: Mentor Publishing, 1963. Raffel, Burton, translator. Beowulf. New York: Mentor Publishing, 1963.