1.0 Introduction Ayurveda is said to have been recollected by Brahma, the Lord of Creation, as he awoke to begin the task of creating the universe. This suggests that Ayurveda transcends the period of this universe, stretching beyond the concept of time itself, having no beginning and no end. Brahma taught this knowledge to Daksha (the protector of all beings), whom in turn taught it to the Ashvin twins (the physicians to the Gods), who in turn taught it to Indra (King of the Gods). When disease and illness began to trouble humanity, the great sages of the world assembled in the Himalayas and resolved to learn Ayurveda from Indra for the benefit of all living beings. Among these sages, Bharadvaja volunteered and traveled to Indra s court to study Ayurveda. After Bharadvaja had completed his study, he brought this knowledge to the world and taught it to the assembled sages. One of these sages, Atreya, taught Ayurveda to his disciples and held a competition to see who had developed the best treatise on Ayurveda. Of their efforts, the treatise of one disciple called Agnivesha was judged the best and was praised even among the gods. Thus, the Agnivesha samhita (collection) became the authoritative text of Ayurveda. Although this text is no longer available it is said to exist in a revised and edited version compiled by Charaka, whose samhita, with the later additions of Dridhabala, is now considered the most authentic and authoritative text of Ayurveda. Charaka tells us that the term Ayurveda is derived from two words, ayus and veda. Many Ayurvedic commentators define ayus as life, but Charaka expands upon this definition, telling us that ayus is the combination of the body, sense organs, mind and soul (Sharma and Dash 1992, 25), the factor responsible for preventing decay, and that which transmigrates from one body to another. From this description, the life principle can be seen to be an emanation from the soul, and in the corporeal realm, is recognized as sentience. Ayurveda is derived from the four principle Vedas: the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda. The Vedas are considered to be a sacred knowledge, an eternal and unending truth within Hindu culture. Ayurveda is a shastra (a declaration of God) 1
within the Vedas, or a stream of knowledge scattered throughout the Vedas that relates directly to health and disease. This shastra is compiled into samhitas, notably the Charaka and Sushruta samhitas, for the benefit of practitioners and students of Ayurveda. The Vedas can also be organized in different ways: into six angas (limbs), four principle shastra (teachings) and six darshanas (perceptions). Among the six darshanas, Ayurveda draws primarily from the Nyaya, Vaisheshika and Samkhya darshanas. The Nyaya darshana is the study of logic and procedure, the Vaisheshika darshana the study of distinction, and the Samkhya darshana is a form of ontology that enumerates 25 classifications of existence. To a lesser extent, Ayurveda also draws upon the other three darshanas: Mimamsa (ritual, spoken word), Yoga (spiritual discipline) and Vedanta (esotericism). The Charaka samhita is wholly concerned with kaya (internal) chikitsa (medicine), and is not fully representative of the entire teachings of the Agnivesha Samhita. In order to make the shastra of Ayurveda complete, it is said that Vishnu incarnated as Dhanvantari, the God of Ayurveda, and taught the theory and practice of surgery to Sushruta, who compiled these teachings in his Sushruta Samhita. This is the second most authoritative text of Ayurveda. The differences between the Charaka and Sushruta samhitas are the functional (physiological) and structural (anatomical) aspects of Ayurveda respectively. 1 In light of the highly technical nature of these texts, Vaghbata (c. 550-600 CE) compiled the Ashtanga Sangraha and the Ashtanga Hrdaya for those of us of weaker intellect. The Ashtanga Hrdaya is his most succinct compilation of the teachings of both Charaka and Sushruta and it is the primary inspiration for this text. The Ashtanga Hrdaya literally means the heart (hrdaya) of the eight limbs (asht + anga) of Ayurveda. These angas or chikitsa (treatments) are: 1. Kaya chikitsa - internal medicine 2. Bala chikitsa - treatment of children 1 So far the debate as to the true age of these texts is far from resolved. European indologists have dated the authorship of these texts anywhere from the time of the Buddha (600 BCE) to around 200 BCE. In contrast, indologists from the sub-continent contend that the date of these texts are much earlier, anywhere from 6000 BCE to 800 BCE. Part of the basis of this contention by native indologists is the fact that throughout India s history the transmission of knowledge was an oral tradition, and just because there are no texts that can be definitively dated before the Buddhist period doesn t mean that this knowledge did not exist before. Even today, the thousands of hymns contained in the Rig Veda are taught orally and committed to memory by young Brahmins. 2
3. Graha chikitsa - treatment of spiritual possession; medical astrology 4. Urdhvanga chikitsa - treatment of the head and neck 5. Shalya chikitsa - treatment requiring the use of a knife; surgery 6. Damshtra chikitsa - treatment of animal inflicted wounds, poisoning, toxicology 7. Jara chikitsa - treatment of aging; rejuvenative therapies 8. Vrisha chikitsa - treatment of impotence and sterility; virilization. Vaghbata tells us in the second shloka (verse) of the Ashtanga Hrdaya that persons desirous of long life which is the means for achieving dharma (righteousness, harmony), artha (wealth and prosperity) and sukha (happiness, joy) should repose utmost faith in the teachings of Ayurveda (Ast. Hr. Su. 1/2). I humbly invite you to consider this text not the word of the acharyas, but as a condensed and hopefully useful guide for practitioners and lay persons alike. Any interpolations, inaccuracies or mistakes are my own and are not reflective of the vast storehouse of wisdom that is Ayurveda. 1.1 Theoretical background of Ayurveda It seems to be an inherent aspect of human nature to recognize the basic duality that pervades life. The ancient Chinese have yin and yang, Judeo-Christian culture teaches good and evil, and Jungian psychoanalysis organizes the psyche in terms of anima and animus. Even the binary functions of the computer I am writing this text on is an example of this intrinsic duality. Ayurveda too, recognizes this duality, although its characteristics are unique. According to Vedanta, the last and most profound of the Vedic darshanas, what we call reality is really a self-developed illusion. This illusion, called maya, is created and perpetuated by the ignorance of the ego, fragmenting our experience of the Whole, or Brahman, which is unattributed, unknowable and latent. The attainment and integration of Brahman into our consciousness is the moksha, or liberation from this world of illusion, where suffering ceases and one merges with the Totality. The ego with its attachments, desires and ignorance clings to this fragmented world, inventing semantical, personal, cultural and social realities that blind us to our true nature, that we are God: Om purnamada purnamidam purnat purnam udichyate purnasya purnamadaya purnameva avashishyate. 3
That is the Whole. This too is the Whole. The Whole comes out of the Whole. Taking the Whole from the Whole, The Whole itself remains" -Isa Upanishad, invocation There is perhaps no other hymn in the Vedic literature that so clearly defines the orientation of holism and holistic medicine. It is a realization that transcends the knowledge we gain from our corporeal existence, where the fragmentation of knowledge ceases to obscure true understanding, where we arrive at a knowing that is complete, and yet cannot be described: Avijnatam, vijanatum, vijnatam, avijanatam. It is not understood by those who understand it, It is understood by those who don't understand it." -Kena Upanishad, 2:3 Within a human being this pervasive and yet unrealized state of totality is called the jivatman, and it is this that is the seed or spark of life. From the accumulated karma (action) of repeated births, through the ignorance and desires of the ahamkara (ego), each of us have bound up our true nature with tremendous samskaras actions whose fruits have yet to be realized. It is our reaction to these fruits, either by luxuriating in or by being repulsed by them, that generates further karma, binding us to samsara, the wheel of life and death. Thus the path that leads us from duhkha (suffering) to sukha (happiness), lies between the push and pull of life. It is a paradoxical state, to be remote yet fully engaged, remaining, as it is referred to in Taoist literature, as an uncarved block of wood. Freed from desire, ignorance and hatred, karma never has a chance to develop, and that which comes to fruit is allowed to ripen without inducing a conditioned response. In this state of being the aspirant is freed from birth, and sees how all things pass away (Anguttura-Nikaya VI/55), entering into the abode of nirvana. 2 According to Samkhya philosophy, the corporeal world is Prakriti, and the transcendent is Purusha. These two principles are often represented graphically as the union of Kali and Shiva respectively, 2 Nirvana, lit. extinction, from the root nir ( to cease ), and va ( to move ) 4
Shiva portrayed as a corpse, lying supine, and Kali sitting astride him, copulating, taking the latent energy of Shiva and transforming it into the active energy of Creation. 1.2 The pancha kosha: the five sheaths of being According to the yogic tradition, a corporeal being is born with five sheaths (pancha kosha) that are organized within three bodies (sharira). The sthula sharira, or gross body, is definitive of physical being and is the corporeal manifestation of all the other sharira or bodies. It is the gross yet highly organized manifestation of matter. It is also called the annamaya kosha, or food sheath, and is discarded upon death. Progressing inward, we come to the sukshma sharira, or subtle body, which comprised of three koshas or sheaths: 1. the pranamaya kosha, comprised of the five pranas (prana, apana, udana, vyana and samana) which provide the impetus and energy for all actions in the body. This vital force underlies the function of the five karma indriyas ( organs of action, i.e. mouth, hands, legs, anus and genitalia) of the gross body 2. the manomaya kosha, comprised of the five jnana indriyas (lit. organs of knowledge, i.e. nose, ears, eyes, skin and tongue) which, in association with the innate mind, or chitta 3, forms manas, or the lower mind 3. the vijnanamaya kosha, comprised of the ahamkara (ego) and buddhi (intellect or higher mind) 4 The sukshma sharira is equivalent to the astral body of Western occultism, where each of us exists in an energetic form, but nonetheless, retains characteristic aspects of our individuality. It is a subtle realm, experienced by most people in trance states, dreams and visions. As the sukshma sharira contains the five senses (jnana indriyas) and the five organs of knowledge (karma indriyas) with which we receive sensory information and act upon it, all corporeal activities are first manifested within this realm. It is within this subtle arena that everything we think or feel becomes manifest. Whether or not this manifestation occurs on a corporeal 3 The term chitta is derived from the Sanskrit root of chit meaning to be aware. 4 Within the vijnanamaya kosha the ahamkara and buddhi compete for our attention, and together generate mundane knowledge (vijnana), as opposed to the higher aspects of knowledge, called jnana, which is the preserve of the buddhi and not influenced by the instability of the ahamkara. 5
level is dependent upon the strength and clarity of a given thought or emotion. In the physical realm manifestation occurs relatively slowly and because of this one thought or feeling may be countered by another. This is why if we want to obtain a result on a physical level, we must purify our intent and develop clarity about what it is we want in our lives. This is one of the purposes behind the use of mantra, which through the repetition of special sounds organizes consciousness in the sukshma sharira around a single purpose, to enhance specific vibrational qualities. The sukshma sharira is also the realm within which the chakras exist, and through the conscious and directed flow of prana, the life force, through the sushumna jalam, we can awaken kundalini in these energy centres. Many extrasensory abilities such as clairvoyance or the influence and guidance of other beings, such as channeling, occur within this realm. The final body is the karana sharira, also known as the anandamaya kosha, or Bliss sheath. This is perhaps the most appropriate place for us to designate the Soul, the interface between the lower and higher aspects of ourselves. It is the most subtle state of being, beyond the push and pull of the ego (ahamkara) and the intellect (buddhi), resting in pure knowledge (jnana), and acting as the impetus for the development of the increasingly grosser forms of a living being. The jivatman interfaces with these five sheaths to provide life, and in association with karma, is bound to them, to samsara, the neverending cycle of birth, death and rebirth. As beings evolve spiritually, progressing inwards towards the attainment of moksha (enlightenment, the final release from samsara), they may find themselves partially existing within the subtle realms, developing certain spiritual powers called siddhis, such as clairaudience, clairsentience or clairvoyance. It is even possible to be reborn within the heavenly realms of the sukshma sharira, although this temptation is considered to be a serious pitfall in spiritual development. The sukshma sharira is the realm in which the devas (heavenly beings) are said to exist, enjoying the power and pleasure of the astral realms, living as immortals, or rather, as beings with extraordinary longevity and power. It is partly for this reason that the Tibetan Book of the Dead was written, as a set of instructions to guide the dead past the enticing yet illusor astral realms and onward to the greater realization of Pure Awareness. The beings that are said to exist within these astral realms maintain different levels of awareness, some focused entirely on their own pleasures and desires, and others with a more noble intent, working 6
towards their further development and for the benefit of all living beings. Fully realized beings understand that any state of being is still a state in which karma and its fruit can be generated and thus know that they are subject to the unyielding power of impermanence and decay. In section 1.2 we learned that Prakriti, the manifestation of health and illness, is synonymous with maya, or self-created illusion. And although Ayurveda is the study of Prakriti, it is designed to explain phenomena within the veil of maya. Ayurveda therefore, is really a path through which we gain insight into the illusory nature of Prakriti. Ayurveda does not deny corporeality, but advocates a specific methodology that facilitates the realization that Prakriti is Purusha. Thus, the correct study of Ayurveda and the practice of dharma (virtue) automatically lead us to the path of Brahman. 5 1.3 The chakra system, kundalini and ashtanga yoga Another system that provides a context for the practice of Ayurveda is the chakra system. This system, like the pancha kosha theory, describes the fundamental aspects of being, but also allows for a specific understanding of spiritual development and its concomitant effects on the body, mind and emotions. The chakra system represents the dynamic structure of the subtle body, the etheric octave of the physical body. The term chakra means wheel, and the seven major chakras are hierarchically arranged energy vortices in the subtle body. Each chakra is thought to represent certain spiritual tasks and attainments when kundalini, normally dormant, is awakened and rises up through the individual chakras. Kundalini is the serpent power of the Transcendent, representing the psychospiritual energy of the body. It is the active, feminine aspect of the Divine called Shakti that remains tightly coiled in the lowest aspect of the etheric body in spiritually unevolved beings. Through the consistent practice of the Eight Limbs of Yoga (ashtanga yoga), kundalini is awakened from her dormant state, and like a snake-charmer, we entice this spiritual awakening to liberate us from the world of samsara. 5 It is not my intention to suggest that anyone need accept the religio-philosophical tenets of Hinduism to practice Ayurveda. Today in modern India people from every kind of faith study and practice Ayurveda. There is however a spiritual component to Ayurveda that cannot be denied: it is fundamental and cannot be separated out without seriously damaging the integrity of Óthe system. Thus the reader is invited to adapt the study of Ayurveda to his or her own personal or religious philosophy. A purely existential or materialistic view of life, however, is incompatible with the principles of Ayurveda. 7
Although other paths to spiritual liberation exist, even with Hinduism, ashtanga yoga is a highly specific set of guidelines that is traditionally considered to be the safest method of spiritual awakening. The eight limbs of ashtanga yoga are as follows: 1. Yama- moral observance, our attitudes to the external world 2. Niyama- self-restraint, our attitude towards one s self 3. Asana- posture, physical exercises 4. Pranayama- breath control, breathing exercises 5. Pratyahara- sensory inhibition, restraint of the senses 6. Dharana- concentration, the ability to direct the mind 7. Dhyana- meditation, the ability to commune with that which we seek to understand 8. Samadhi- ecstasy, complete integration The first five limbs of ashtanga yoga are taken to comprise hatha yoga, and the latter three relate to the practice of Raja Yoga. The term hatha is derived from two words: ha, meaning darkness, and tha, which means light. Thus, hatha yoga is the path that seeks to unite the primordial aspects of the sun and the moon, the archetype of male and female, Purusha and Prakriti. Hatha however, also means forceful, referring to the practice of selfdiscipline and the effort it takes to rouse oneself to the calling of spiritual liberation. The goal of hatha yoga is the formation of a yogic body (yoga deha), or a body that is free from disease and the limitations of the ordinary human body. To do this, the yogin/yogini (yogic practitioner, male/female) seeks to harness the life force of the body and prevent it from dissipating by redirecting its flow along the central axis of the body, called the sushumna nadi. The practices of hatha yoga purify and cleanse the body, preparing the ground for raja yoga. While many confuse hatha yoga with the practice of asana, hatha yoga has a much broader outlook than a series of physical exercises, as it is often interpreted to be in the West. Ultimately, the asanas only serve to relax the body, make it able to withstand long periods of meditation. According to Patanjali, the author of the Yoga sutra, the only physical position (asana) that is important to cultivate is one that is stable and pleasurable (sthirasukhamasanam), allowing for complete physical relaxation, and complete mental clarity. Absolute proficiency in the all the different asanas is not considered necessary. Raja yoga, or the kingly yoga, is the transcendent aspect of ashtanga yoga, representative of the teachings of Vedanta and the conscious direction of the mind towards spiritual liberation. Such 8