CHAPTER-5 TRADITIONAL HYDRAULIC TECHNOLOGY 5.1. TRADITIONAL WATER MANAGEMENT OF UTTARAKHAND 5.2. CONCLUSION Over the centuries Uttarakhand has developed its own hydraulic technology, which is quite unique in its usefulness. The ancient people of this region evolved the hydraulic technology taking into consideration all the necessary factors which suit the environment of the region. The people were well aware of the importance of water; they treated water sources as sacred and many rituals were and are still performed at the very sources of water. 155 They believed in sustainable use of water and thereby efficiently managed it. Some places in Kumaun region are known for its traditional water sources; although they are diminishing fast but they have their great relevance even today. Besides, other technologies evolved in Uttarakhand, its hydraulic technology is also the outcome of its interaction with other
regions. The detailed account of the traditional water management in the.region is as follows: 5.1.TRADITIONAL WATER MANAGEMENT OF UTTARAKHAND The Himalayas are called the water towers of India. Through the hoary and sacred rivers of the Ganga and its tributaries Uttarakhand is closely related with the Ganga valley: physically through the mighty streams which made life and civilization possible in the Ganga Valley and through myth, legends and culture in which the Ganga binds together Uttarakhand and the plains of north India. Even the legendary Pandavas ascended to the Himalayas towards their last years. The pilgrim centres are dotted all over the banks of the Ganga and its tributaries from Badrinath to Hardwar which create not only a water stream but also a cultural stream that links the Central Himalayas with plains of the north. These pilgrimage centres spread from Amarnath in Kashmir, Badrinath in Garhwal, Puri in the east, Dwarka in the west, to the southernmost tip of the continent - weave India into a common cultural mosaic. Even the priest of Badrinath hails from Kerala. Uttarakhand worshipped the Ganga and all her sisters and maintained their purity. In course of time, the sacred river gradually became a dumping ground of all the muck and was polluted badly in the northern plains. Despite the myth of the obstacles of Himalayan mountains, the people from all over the country came in continuous streams to the pilgrim centres like Badrinath, Kedarnath, Jageshwar, Gopeshwar, Baijnath, Bageshwar etc. thus providing a constant line of 156
communication and exchange of cultures, languages, rituals, knowledge and technology between the Central Himalayan region and the rest of the country. Thus Uttarakhand transmitted its reverence for water and for the Ganga and its sisters as well as the technology of keeping the water pure and harvesting it for the people at large. Though Uttarakhand had two monsoons and plenty of water came down through rain and snow, its steep terrain and millions of tons of pine needles accelerated the run off. Yet, the hill people devised ingenious ways to harvest rain water and created inviolable conventions to maintain its purity. In this chapter we will describe the story of water in Uttarakhand and how it was collected, used, preserved as a sacred substance. The Ganga is the most vital link which relates the Himalayan land with the northern plains physically through the waters of the Ganga and her sisters and culturally through innumerable myths and legends that tie Uttarakhand with the rest of the northern plains which gave rise to the mighty civilizations of the Ganga valley in the first millennium BCE. Perhaps more important is the awe and reverence with which the Ganga is treated by the hill people. Food, shelter and clothes are considered to be the primary requirements for survival of human being but life is not possible 157
without water. Water is an integral part and also the most important and fundamental natural resource, on the earth, playing a very central role in our lives. Early people used to settle down near natural water resources. Almost all the ancient cultures or civilizations (Indus, Egyptian etc.) of the world developed near water resources or by the shores of great rivers. Early people were totally dependent upon nature. They used to worship rivers and other water resources like the Ganga, the Yamuna etc. and also considered them as their mother. According to the rituals water is worshiped in Uttarakhand since long. There are still many Naulas - a traditional source of water in certain parts of Uttarakhand - which have idols of various deities like the Sun, the Moon, the Earth, the Vayu (Wind), Vishnu, Ganesh etc., which are also being worshiped since olden times. The main motive of keeping idols of gods and goddesses in the naulas, is to preserve water from pollution created through anthropogenic activities. For example, a stone sculpture of Lord Ganesha adorns the entrance of the Joshiyara naula of Almora district. In Uttarakhand region water is considered sacred. When the bride first enters the home of her in-laws/husband (sasural), it is mandatory for her to go and perform at a nearby water resource like, a spring, a naula, a stream etc. This traditional procedure might have been adopted by the locals because they probably thought that worshipping a living water resource would bring the same continuity in their lives just like water which even after crossing so many obstacles, keeps on flowing constantly. Water is not only the basic need for human-life but also for any living being. Water is used for various purposes. When a person pours water on his/her body while taking a bath she/he chants the following Mantra: 158
Ganga Cha Yamuna Cha Godawari, Suraswati, Narmade, Sindhu, Kaveri Jalwamin Sanndhim Kuru Water has thus been stated to be a deity. Such descriptions are found in several religious treatises. 159 Lord Krishna says, in Srimad Bhagvadgita, Water is my home. This is stated by Lord Krishna as he himself is a manifestation of Lord Vishnu. At first, people used to obtain water from natural resources but when demand for water increased with the increase in population, the existing natural water sources fell short to fulfill their day to day demand. People, therefore, started digging little holes on the land called (chuptauls) for obtaining fresh water. As their experience and knowledge increased, people started digging open naulas, then naulas with shelters and later naulas with stairs. Lord Vishnu was worshipped, whenever, naulas were built and when the construction of a naula was completed the idol of a deity was established there. These naulas were in the shape of a small chamber and were constructed below ground level. The place, from where water oozed out of the earth and got collected in a small pond, is locally called a Kund. The kund remains covered with a rectangular roof. The entrance door and a verandah were constructed in front of the naula. Some naulas were built with nine steps and are still extant, particularly in the Chaukhutia area of this state. They meet the day to day drinking water needs of the locals. This type of naula is also found at Maneshwer Mahadev in the Champawat area of this state.
5.1.1. Traditional water resources of Uttarakhand Uttarakhand has a glorious tradition of water harvesting and a number of natural water resources are also found here. The traditional structures of water management are similar in the mountainous areas of the Kumaun and Garhwal of Uttarakhand. Mostly channels, rivers, glaciers, lakes, rain water and streams of all dimensions are the main sources of surface water in the state. These water resources have played a significant and dominant role in the development of the cultural, socio-economical and environment related activities of this region. Common water wealth of Uttarakhand is as follows: Sl. No. Table 5.1 Common Water wealth in Uttarakhand and its use Source Local Name Use 1 Stream Gadhera Drinking, Domestic, Animals, Irrigation 2 Natural water resources Srot (Naulas), Dharas etc.) Drinking, irrigation 3 Waterfall Ghuls For Irrigation 160
4 Rainfall Dyo Rainwater harvesting and assortment 5 River Gad Drinking, Domestic, Animals, Irrigation, Waterpower 6 Ponds and lakes Pokhar Khal Tal or and For Animals Traditional water collecting systems in Uttarakhand comprise a variety of community control methods. Their assortments started from the differences in the local circumstances. Many of these plans were initially made by local leaders, dynasties and kings or by the prosperous people of the society. They displayed a diversity of technologies and minimal state intervention in water rights or management. Sometimes, these systems failed to ensure social justice in water use. About 49 water springs exist in Almora district, out of which, around 18 have almost dried up due to the low ground water table. All natural water systems affect the locals as well as the environment, as the region is mainly rural and most of the local population is dependent on traditional water sources for domestic and other uses. Some decades ago, Naulas, Dharas, Ghuls and other structures were usually treated as a common property. These resources were mostly owned, used and maintained by the local communities. Such water harvesting was practised in the state from ancient times. The variety of water harvesting structures arose from the ecological 161
and geological diversities of the region. Naulas are usually found in the Kumaun region of Uttarakhand. Large portions of the Patal Devi area and the Shail village, near Almora (Bageshwar motor road, between Dhar Ki Tuni and Ghaneli Dhar) have no permanent water source. However, two springs are found at Shail (Sunarakhola) and near Kalimat jungle Chauki, and, therefore, there is scarcity of drinking water in village Shail and Patal Devi area, except during the monsoon season. 5.1.1.1. Naula Naulas are the most important hydraulic structures, which are unique and commonly found in some particular parts of the Kumaon region. Since ancient times, water from these Naulas is used primarily for drinking purpose. Naulas are mostly found in the middle Himalayan region of Kumaun. Naulas were generally constructed in every village of this region according to population, availability of water resources and its environmental conditions. Naula is the most imperative source of natural seepage of drinking water; it is normally in a four-sided (rectangle or square) shape with stairs on all the sides (Fig: 5.3). This is commonly covered by stone slates and a wall is raised along its three sides (Fig: 5.2). The Naulas are designed to collect water from the underground seepage and are used by the local population for fulfilling their everyday needs. The 162
geographical appearance and shallow depth of ground water level are responsible for the existence of springs in the mountainous region. These springs are regenerated by the percolation of surface water through the soil. This structure is equivalent to the bawari of Himanchal Pradesh. Some naulas are large and have undecorated structures with rooms having a provision for bathing and washing of clothes in its vicinity. These naulas are considered to have been built by the local rulers, carpenters, masons, and Muslim workers. Chand rulers also invited workers from Manihar, Rajasthan, Orissa and other parts of the country for the construction of naulas. The construction of a naula is described by U.C. Pande (a retired Engineer from State Irrigation Department) as follows: Once a site has been identified, a pit is excavated gently so that the water source is not disturbed. A dry stone masonry wall is built across the direction of flow of water. A backfill of pieces of stone, gravel or other coarse material is placed behind this wall. Stone masonry walls in mud mortar constitute the other three walls of the tank. To ensure that water does not seep through the three outer sides of the tank, these are built as double walls, i.e. two walls with an intervening space. This space is filled with a clay puddle. A raised platform is 163
made on one side underneath which a narrow drain is provided to lead excess flow away from the naula. This structure is built entirely underground and is shaped as an inverted pyramid. Since water from a naula is used generally for domestic consumption, it is invariably provided with a roof (from Ravi Chopara 2003). In this region some naulas are decorated with different types of natural scenes and/or idols while others are undecorated, simple or less decorated. Perhaps the water of these decorated naulas was used by the royal families or the people of high position. And undecorated naulas were used by villagers, general public and communities. Perhaps, such naulas were used only for collecting water. These naulas are found abundantly in the Kumaun region. Naulas are a traditional source of water mostly in the rural areas. They are used to fulfill the demand of clean drinking water. These water springs are the wonders of the traditional hydraulic technology. According to Upadhayay and Bisht (Upadhayay and Bisht 2001), naulas definitely used to be public property. There were no detailed policies of administration. Villagers traditionally respected their naulas and the rituals observed in constructing them resembled those practised in constructing temples. The Naula water was often used with therapeutically important plants such as amla, and neem (Agrawal and Narain in Ravi Chopara 1997: 36). Naulas of premedieval period to 18 th century have been found in this region. We get 164
information about these naulas from ancient inscriptions but because of lack of proper evidence, they have not been properly identified. In ancient times, kings also got naulas constructed. Many ruined naulas were renovated by them also. These naulas are found in Almora, Pithoragarh, Gangolihat, Baleshwar, Dwarahat etc. in Uttarakhand region. Jhakarsem Naula of Almora, Paran naula of Champawat, Therp Naula, Naula of Haththarp, naula of Kharakwal, naula of Yogeshwar in Pithoragarh, naula of Majpipal and naula of Dungra Kaki in Champawat are some of the naulas with shilapadd (stone steps ladder). Kumaun was ruled for many centuries by various local dynasties such as Katyuris, Chands and Pals. Many naulas were constructed by them for the convenience of the general public like the Syunara kot ka naula, the Ekhatiya naula of Champawat (according to local legend a one handed sculptor made the naula from a single rock), naulas of Paran, Ghot, Baleshwer, Janhawi naula of Pithoragarh, are some of them. Some of the naulas like Baleshwar naula and Ek-Hatiya naula are famous for their architectural magnificence and the Baleshwar naula is the only one with an image of Lord Buddha. Janhawi and Baleshwar naulas belong to the 13 th century and Badrinath Ji-Ka naula (Bageshwar District, Uttarakhand) dates back to the 7 th century. The technology used in naulas is very old and numerous naulas are still in use. These are symbols of the sustainable technology. In Nasiar naula of Almora district water flows out of two streams. Out of these two streams, one represents the male and other one the female 165
deity. A naula in Dwarahat (Almora) is made in the shape of a circular well, locally known as Kuan naula, which is fulfilling the demand of pure drinking water of its consumers. Mallihat naula is also found below a road passing through a village, near Dwarahat. In Champawat district, Karankarait ka naula is found constructed underneath a terraced agricultural field and its roof is propped up by two sculpted stone pillars. A six domed naula in Suraikhet is located on the border of the Kumaun and the Garhwal regions. It is believed that about 365 naulas were found in Almora district only which were constructed by the Chand kings. Some of them have dried up, whereas others are in a dilapidated condition. Recently, two naulas have been discovered in Almora district, one near Badreshwar temple, below the Dharamshala, while the other in Tilakpur, behind the Gurudwara. I also found naula buried in Baijnath ( 5.3). These naulas are not only excellent examples of water management but also of the traditional architecture. The naulas bear inscriptions; one such inscription is on the rear wall of the garbh-graha (sanctumsanctorum) of the Baleshwar naula. This inscription is difficult to read. However, one word, identified as Kumm Chand, suggests its existence since the period of Kumb or Kumm Chand (from 1121 to 1140 A,D.). There are some other naulas, with inscriptions on rocks. Janhawi naula (1263 CE) of Gangolihat in Pithoragarh district is datable to the 13 th century; its construction started in the year 1269 and completed in 12 years. It was commissioned by Raja Chandra Dev near the Kali temple for the worshipers. After this the Suryakot Naula in Almora and Partan Ka Naula in Gangolihaat were 166
constructed in the 14 th -15 th century. Mantande naula (built by Raja Gyan Chand and Sonpal in 1402 CE), Patan naula and Bagauli naula (built by Raja Vikram Chand in 1452 CE), Hat naula of Tharkot, naula of Raja Narchand, Pungeshwar naula of Berinag are some other important ancient naulas of this region. It is said that Pandeshwar naula was renovated by King Udyot Chandra in 1569 CE. Many inscriptions about these naulas have been found in surveys. According to Dr. Chandra Singh Chauhan, the naula of Baleshwar is the oldest of all and the Janhawi naula of Gangolihat is the next in age. Pungeshwar naula of Pithoragarh district is the largest naula of the Kumaun region of Uttarakhand. There is An individual naula at Baijnath the owner of this naula is mr. Padam Singh Negi ( Fig: 5.4) Many naulas were also built by different rulers along the major pilgrimage routes for travellers. 5.1.1.2. Dhara Dharas, another common source of drinking water, are of three types: Sirpatia Dhara, Mudpatia Dhara and Patviyan Dhara. (Ravi Chopara, in Agrawal, Jamal and Shah (Eds) 2007: Pp. 38.). These water resources of the region are being utilised since long back for domestic and drinking purposes. Most of the villagers of this region still depend on dharas for a secure supply of water. Dharas provide a source of running water and thus play a key role in irrigation. Dhara is 167
one of the most beautiful structures and is ubiquitous in the Uttarakhand region. There are also some wellknown dharas in Devalthal, Berinag, Chopata, Thal, Naini, Jainti, Tharkot, Tehri Garhwal, Pauri Garhwal, Dwarahat, Garampani, etc. there is a dhara of Katuryies time still in use at Baijnath which is known as Katyuri Dhara (Fig: 5.5). A major part of the drinking water requirement is still met through cthese age old devices. Sipahi dhara and Parda dahara of Nainital serve quite a large population. In the Ganga and the Yamuna dharas of Gupt Kashi water is routed through the mouths of beautifully moulded brass heads of cows and elephants. It is believed that these Dharas were constructed in the 16 th century. Prahlad, Kurma, Bhrigu, Urvashi & Indira dharas are the five famous dharas of Badrinath and are locally known as the Panch Dharas. The most outstanding of these is the Indira dhara, which is 1.5 km to the north of the town Badaripuri. In ancient times Bhrigudhara flowed through a number of caves. Th e one on the right of the river Rishi Ganga, originates from the Neelkanth range is called Urvashi dhara. The water of Kurma dhara is very cold while that of the Prahlad dhara is lukewarm, the overflow of which moves smoothly down the rocks of Narain Parvat. In Uttarkashi distrct, the Shiv dhara, located in Pharikoti village, has recently been renovated. The Kalinag dhara, in Sarnaul village of Uttarkashi has a wall ornamented with stone carvings with water flowing through the mouth of a carved cow mask Dharas used to be adorned with carvings of deities and animals. Water used to emerge from a hole, known as Mungra in local language. 168
Initially people used broad leaves to regulate the force and direction of the flowing water; later on stones in various beautiful shapes were being used to build the mouth of the dhara. In Almora an old dhara is known as Ranidhara and is used extensively by the local people for drinking purposes, and is preferred to the piped water. Ravi Chopra (Chopra 2003: Pp. 1-15.) has described three types of Dharas in his book, Himalayan Jal Sanskriti, as follows: There are three types of dharas, depending on their height above the ground. If one can drink from a dhara while standing straight, it is called a sirpatia dhara. These dharas are sometimes decorated with facemasks of animals and cows, lions, elephants, snakes or crocodiles. If one has to bend over to drink from one s hand or to fill a container to drink from the dhara, then it is called a mudpatia dhara. These dharas also have animal facemasks or simple pipe structures. The third type of dhara is a seasonal one. During the monsoon season, wooden spouts or broad leaves are stuck in the path of a flowing spring or seepage to create them. They are called Patvinyan dharas. Often one has to sit on the ground to drink water from them. Some dharas are still in use but most of them have dried up. Deforestation, environmental disorders and ecological activities are responsible for the destruction of these natural water resources. Many dharas have dried up in the Garhwal region as a consequence of 169
earthquakes and landslides. Amni-ka-dhara in Tehri Garhwal district dried up after the Uttarkashi earthquake of 1991. An ancient dhara found along the main road of Pauri Garrhwal, has now vanished. This dhara too was used as a source of drinking water and also for irrigation as it provided water for ghuls and canals. An ancient dhara of Patal Bhuwaneshwar has also dried up (fig: 5.6). These dharas are also used for various other proposes, e.g. the Bhotia peoples use the water of these dharas to for cleaning the wool. 5.1.1.3. Ghuls In ancient times the problem of irrigation was solved by diverting the water of streams and rivers through channels to agricultural fields. These channels served as viable options for water management in this region; the small barriers, known as baan in local parlance and Kuliyana in Kumauni language, were built by the locals to meet many ends, which indicate that the land was irrigated with Ghuls and Khuls. These water channels were owned by individuals, the public or the state. The stream water was brought down through long channels using the contours of the hill slopes. Ghuls are primarily meant for irrigation and play a vital role in the agriculture of the region. Ghuls are managed totally by the people themselves without any assistance from the government. The water from Ghuls is not only used for irrigation but also for drinking and running water mills (gharats). Along the length of the ghuls, there are openings which lead to small secondary channels, known as hawarrs, and supply water to the fields. 170
Irrigation canals are of different dimensions. The channel, which is smaller than that of kul, is known as baul. A stone is put at the opening for controlling the running water. An opening is made at the lower side of the land, which helps in the flow of the extra water towards the lower terraces from where it finally returns into the channels. Some times the running water of ghuls is blocked by a stone or solid rock. In such a case the peeled bark of a banana tree is used as a water conveyer or the water is canalized all the way through a pipe (wooden pipe). Ghuls can simply be dug by hand and plastered with cement. Some ghuls cater to more than one village, if they are long enough. 5.1.1.4. Gharats The word Gharat has been taken from Ghat of the Kumauni dialect and Ghatt of Sanskrit Language. Gharats are the traditional mills, run by water which have been used in this region since a very long time and are made on the banks of rivers and near other water sources. gharats are mainly used for grinding wheat and many other grains such as maize, ragi etc.chakki, doka and firki are some main pars of Gharat (Fig: 5.7). Most of the civilizations had settled near the banks of rivers. Stone tools were made by people at that time not only for hunting but also for other purposes. The people had started making small huts with stone and wood. The Ganga Valley Civilisation started between 700 and 800 BCE. Wheat and barley were cultivated at that time with gram and peas. This shows that cultivation was quite developed at that time. Probably the silbatta was used as the first 171
grinding device. The hand mill and wind mills might have followed suit. In Uttarakhand, silbattas have been found. Subsequently big gharats might have been constructed. These gharats have been found in Chamoli, Champawat etc. In Kafara village of Almora district, a gharat which was in use nearly 40 years ago exists to date. In the Garhwal region, gharats or water mills are fulfilling the grinding requirement of the remote isolated rural communities. In ancient times kings used to donate gharats, temples and lands to priests and other local people. Old copper inscriptions provide information about the daan (charity) of kings. Descriptions of daan are also found in the copper inscriptions of Pandukeshwar. According to Chandra Singh Chauhan description of ghat daan has been found in nearly 48 copper inscriptions. There were near about 60,000 gharats found in this region. About 5000 gharats still survive in Almora district and approximately 2956 in the Garhwal region. (Chauhan 2010 (Eds.) Pandey and Joshi: Pp. 104-123) Sl. No. Table 5.2 District wise distribution of gharats Name of District Total Registered At present in use 1. Almora 5726 1607 2. Udhamsingh Nagar 99 7 172
3. Uttarkashi 1235 694 4. Champawat 809 305 5. Chamoli 2701 1647 6. Tehri Garhwal 1121 523 7. Nainital 1938 211 8. Pithoragarh 1134 494 9. Pauri Garhwl 888 10 10. Bageshwar 1433 759 11. Rudraprayag 503 98 12. Dehradun 781 425 13. Hardwar 108 - All the records were taken from the Zila Panchayat Office in 1998 by Drs. Chandra Singh Chauhan and Harish Singh Nayal. A little improvement in the machinery of gharats can make them much more efficient and these can also be used very feasibly for production of power. Each Gharat could produce 3-5 KW power, which is sufficient to meet the electricity demand of 25-50 households. Stowell (1992) informs us as to how beneficial these mills proved to the owners and how Sir Henry Ramsay laid down a 173
policy against these mills without articulating a clear plan to support irrigation. Sapru (1924 and 1925) gave due significance to these watermills as they served as a helping hand for the people of Almora and that of Tehri Garhwal districts (Shah and Shah 2007: 138). The Himalayan region is the abode of many rivers and glaciers. Glaciers cover about 33,000 sq km area of this region, thus appropriately called the Water Tower of Asia. The Geological Survey of India reports that there are around 6,500 glaciers in this region. It provides about 86,000,000 cubic m. of water per year. For example, the four sub-basins of the Ganga, Yamuna, Bhagirathi and Alaknanda jointly constitute nearly 900 glaciers in the state of Uttarakhand. Some famous glaciers of this region are listed below: Table 5.3 Some Famous Glaciers of Uttarakhand Region (From Internet) Sl. Name of District No. Glacier 1. Pindari Glacier Bageshwar 174
2. Kafni Glacier Bageshwar 3. Milam Glacier Pithoragarh 4. Gangotri Glacier Uttarkashi 5. Sunderdhunga Bageshwar 6. Poting Glacier Pithoragarh 7. Nabhik Glacier Pithoragarh 8. Ralam Glacier Pithoragarh 9. Doriyani Glacier Uttarkashi 10. Choura Bari Rudraprayag Glacier 11. Dunagiri Glacier Chamoli 12. Namic Glacier Pithoragarh 13. Maiktoli Glacier Bageshwar 14. Tipraambak Chamoli Glacier 15. Panchachuli Glacier Pithoragarh This state is home to various natural resources, forests and many ecosystems, separated by several Himalayan rivers. There are many 175
rivers flowing in this state, the water of which has been utilized for irrigation and many other purposes by the people of this region. Various rivers and their streams flow through this state. These are termed Gaadh in the local dialect. Some main rivers of Uttarakhand are as follows: Table 5.4 Some main rivers of Uttarakhand (From Internet) Name of the river Bhagira thi river Tons Saryu Kosi Yamuna Dhouli (in Garhwa l ) Drainage area From Gaumukh to Devprayag From Her Ki Dun to Daak Pathar From Bhadra Tunga to Panchewasher From Kausani to Sultanpur From Yamunotari to Dhalipur Mandak ani From Devwan Himani to Vishnu Prayag Kedarnath to Rudraprayag Gaula Ram Ganga Pinder From Paharpani to Udham Singh Nagar From Doodha Toli to Kalagarh From Pindari glaciers to Karn 176
Nayar east Nayar west Kali river Nandak ani Lohawa ti Alakhna nda Gori Kuti Ladhiya Dholi (in Kumau n) Prayag From Gadri to Satpuli From Khirsu to Satpuli Lipulekh to Tanakpur Nanda Ghughati to Nandprayag From Abbar mount to Kali Satopanth to Devprayag From Milam Himrali to Joulgivi From Lapayan Dhura to Kali From Thali to Chuka From Gowan Khanna Himani to Twadhar The Ganga, Yamuna, Kali, Mandakini, Sharda, Saryu, Tons, Kosi, Bhagirathi and Ram Ganga are the prominent rivers of this state. Gangotri (the ice formation here resembles a cow s mouth) represents the origin of the river Ganga, near Kedarnath. At this point the river is known as Bhagirathi after the king Bhagirath. According to the Indian mythology this river has descended from the heavens. It is said that King Sagar had 60,000 sons who conquered all the demons on the 177
earth and in order to assert his power he performed an Ashwamegh Yagya. According to the tradition during the Ashwamegh Yagya a horse was kept open and if horse was stolen by anybody then it was considered that, that person is ready to fight a war with the king who is doing Ashwamegh Yagya. So the horse was stolen by Lord Indra because he feared the power of king Sagar and wanted to stop him, therefore he tied the horse in the ashram of Kapil Muni. When the 60,000 sons of King Sagar, found the horse at Kapil Muni s Ashram they got angry and attacked the hermitage. At that time the Muni was in meditation and by getting disturbed he opened his eyes in rage and as a consequence of which all the sons of king Sagar were reduced to ash, except prince Asamanjas. Anshuman, the grand son of King Sagar, carried the horse back and asked for his forgiveness. Kapil Muni demanded that if the Ganga could be brought down from the heavens to the earth, the sons of the king could be brought back to life. Anshuman and his son Dilip were not successful in this job but Dilip s son Bhagirath was determined to do this job. He started deep meditation and after many years the Ganga got satisfied with his penance and descended upon the earth. The Ganga was held by Lord Shiva on his matted hair to stop it from flooding the earth. The Bhagirathi, Bhilangana, Mandakini, Janhvi, Rishiganga, Saraswati and Alaknanda are the seven tributaries of the river Ganga. The confluence of river Mandakini and Bhagirathi is at Dev Prayag and gets the name of the river Ganga. River Yamuna originates from Yamunotri glacier, located to the south west of Banderpoonch. The river Ram Ganga from the southern division appears near Almora. After crossing the mountainous area it arrives at Kalagarh. A dam has 178
been built at Kalagarh on this river. The tributaries of the Alaknanda, well-known as Mandakani, Pindar and Dhawal Ganga join the river Ganga after that. The river thereafter reaches the plains at Hardwar after crossing the mountainous region. The Kosi is a major river of this region, draining a geographical area of 1475 km 2 along the central and the south-central parts of Kumaun. It is the principal tributary of the Ramganga, a prominent river of Kumaun. It flows along in the Lesser Himalaya and Shivaliks and ultimately disappears in Bhabhar near Ramnagar in Nainital district. The Suyal is the main tributary of the river Kosi which joins it at Kwarab flowing through the eastern part of Almora district. The main tributaries joining it upto Kwarab are: the Bhutagaon Gad, Dhoni Gad or Sumari Gad, Sim Gad, Nana Kosi, Patia and Ron Gad, Shail- Jamthara Gad. Not only many rivers but also many lakes are found in this region. As most of the lakes (tals) of this hilly region are in Kumaun, it is known as the region of Tals. Some famous lakes of this region are as follows: Naini Tal- the length of this lake is 1465 m, breadth 455 m and the average depth 25 m. According to a legend this lake was formed where one of the green eyes of Goddess Parvati fell, after Vishnu slit up her dead body and spread it all over the land to stop Shiva s cosmic dance of destruction. 179
Bhim Tal -is one of the largest lakes of Kumaun. This lake has a legendary association with Bhima of Mahabharata. The length of the lake is 1674m, breadth 427m and the average depth 30 m. Saat Tal- is a cluster of seven interrelated lakes. Depth of this lake is 19 m. Nal Damyanti Tal- its length is 20m, breadth 15 m and depth 8 m. Khurpa Tal- The shape of this tal is like a khur (hoof) of an animal, hence the name. Sukha Tal The name literally means dry; the lake usually remains dry but gets filled after the rains ) Naukuchia Tal - This is the deepest lake of Uttarakhand. The length of the lake is 1004 m, breadth 750 m and depth 45 m. Sarita Tal Where is ( Nainital) Vishnu Tal- This Tal is in Badrinath near Satyapatha. Roopkund Roopkund is located near Vedini Bugyal. Tarag Tal In Almora district. Dewariya Tal This is located in Ukhimath (Rudraprayag). Chora Bari Tal This is in Kedarnath. Aanchari Tal- This lake is in the valley of flowers Uttarakhand (Chamoli). Upsara Tal- This lake is in Tehri Garhwal. 180
Vasukee Tal- This lake is in Kedarnath. Ling Tal- This lake in located Near Gangotri (Uttarkashi). Dron Sagar- This lake is in Kahsipur, in district Udham Singh Nagar. Bani Tal- This lake is situated on the hill of Aadi Badri (In Chamoli). Dugadh Tal- This lake is located east of the River Birahee. Dodi Tal- This lake is located between Pachan Village of Dhanari and an old Village (in Tehri) Diviya Sarowar Situated in Vilab Mountain Nachiketa Tal- This lake is located to the north of Dodi Tal Despite a large number of rivers and tals in this region, the water supply is gradually dwindling due to increasing population and other factors. Due to mismanagement the critical water resources of this region are getting depleted and degraded rapidly. Today thousands of naulas are vanishing. If these water resources are not used sustainably they will soon disappear. It, therefore, becomes our moral responsibility to save these natural water resources, otherwise they may become extinct. Although nominally water is worshiped in Uttarakhand but most of the water resources, especially those located in villages, are drying up and rivers are getting polluted.the existence of rivers in Uttarakhand 181
has become endangered because of the proposed 220 small and big dams on these rivers. Problems of landslides and earthquakes are always there. The rivers of this state serve as the lifeline for over 7 crore people and are now on the verge of drying up. In spite of its various projects, the government has paid no attention towards the rejuvenation of these rivers and has blindly handed over these rivers to private companies for hydropower projects. At present about 60 hydropower projects are being run by private companies due to which many people will lose their lands, gharats, homes and animals. In Uttarkashi district alone, private companies have been allotted ten small scale hydroelectric projects, which are expected to provide nearly 23 MW of electricity. Dams are also being built on the Yamuna River which will adversely affect it. Water level of four main rivers (the Ganga, Bhagirathi, Tons & Yamuna) of this region has fallen down considerably. The main rivers of Kumaun (viz. the Gomati, Gaula, Ramganga, Panar, Gagas and Kosi etc.), which are surrounded by dense forests, have also come under threat. According to a recent investigation, it has been found that the water level of the river Kosi has considerably fallen down and the pollution has also severely affected it. This is true for many other rivers of Uttarakhand as well. According to Dr. J.S. Rawat the water discharge of the river Kosi is reducing per year by 50 liters because of poor rains. Natural springs are also drying up due to this very reason. He also says that if no effective plan is made soon enough, the river Kosi could completely dry up within the next 12 years because its four 182
contributing rivers have already dried up and almost 13 perennial watercourses of the river system have been converted into seasonal streams. The water flow of river Kosi has been given by Dr. J. S. Rawat as follows: Flow of the river 790 liter 440 liter 995 liter 780 liter 530 liter 430 liter 315 liter 423 liter 290 liter 285 liter 250 liter Table 5.5 Water Flow of river Kosi Year 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 85 liter 2003 Not only water streams but also some lakes like naini lake (Nainital) are drying up. The water label of naini Lake is being reducing 183
continuously for the last few years, on account of increasing population, adverse weather conditions and lack of rain water. The per year water reducing level of Naini lake is as follows: Table 5.6 Per year water reducing level of Naini lake (Hindustan, 3 April 2011) Year Water level in ft.(1 st April) 2003 8.70 2004 4.90 2005 7.30 2006 5.80 2007 6.51 2008 6.40 2009 5.44 2010 4.75 2011 3.15 184
Water scarcity has increased due to the distressing condition of rivers. It seems that in future these rivers will completely cease to exist. Water resources of the Garhwal region have started drying due to the erroneous planning of the Government. These water resources are vanishing day by day, thereby increasing the scarcity of water. Reckless felling of broad leaved trees and priority of plantation of pine trees are two main reasons. Broad leaved plants should be planted to increase the water level. The Government should also take some effective steps for the conservation of water resources. The Kumaun and Garhwal Water Act 1975 and the U.P. Water Supply and Sewerage Act 1975 are the only two acts in operation in Uttarakhand, regarding the retention, collection and distribution of water. Streams, natural channels, natural lakes, ponds and rain water are the sources of water here. Kumaun and Garhwal Water Act define water as Water means water of rivers, streams, flowing in natural channels, natural lakes and ponds or reservoirs and includes rain water. Some substantive water laws implemented in Uttarakhand are as follows: Indian Penal Code, 1860 U.P. Land Revenue Act, 1901 Panchayat Rules 1931, U.P. Panchayat Forests U.P. Village Panchayat Act, 1947 185
U.P. Kshetra Panchayat and Zila Panchayats Act, 1961 Forest Conservation, Act, 1980 Indian Evidence Act, 1872 Civil Procedure Code, 1908 Criminal Procedure Code U.P. Minor Minerals Concession Rules, 1963 Indian Easements Act, 1882 U.P. Kumaun and Uttarakhand Zamindari Abolition Act, 1960 The management of rain water is very crucial as the water in springs and rivers will not be sufficient to cope up with the increasing demand of water in future and rain water will be the only cost effective alternative. We should conduct public awareness programmes in every village of this region. Rain water harvesting is very necessary for increasing ground water table and municipalities should make it mandatory that construction of a new house would be sanctioned only if appropriate provision for rain water harvesting is made. We can store rain water by constructing kachha small ponds and planting broad leaved species of trees etc. In my opinion pine trees should be replaced with oak trees. By this I don t mean deforestation because pine trees are found in abundance in this region. The needles of pine trees spread toxicity in the soil due to which vegetation growth in its 186
vicinity is hindered. These trees contain inflammable resin and tons of pine needles play the main role in the spread of devastating forest fires. On the other hand, Oak trees are hydrophilic and help in retaining the humidity in the soil. They thus help in maintaining ground water table by absorbing water in their expanded root systems and leaf litter. So we should plant oak trees around natural water resources, which would be helpful in recharging the aquifers. According to a local legend, once upon a time, Nanda, the most popular goddess, was coming to her mother s home. To make it to her mother s home she had to cross difficult paths, mountains and rivers. One day when Nanda got tired she stopped under the pine tree to take rest. She asked the pine if he could tell her the distance of her mother s home from there but the pine tree answered her rudely that he didn t care the least about her mother s home. On getting this rude response, Nanda cursed the pine tree that no plants would sprout under its canopy, no animal would eat leaves and no bird would nest in it and no bee would like to make a hive on it. Nanda then stopped under the Oak (Banj) tree and Oak welcomed Nanda and asked her to consider its canopy itself as her mother s home. On hearing this affectionate answer Nanda got delighted and blessed the Oak tree that many plants would sprout under its canopy and birds and bees would love to live in it and that there will be plenty of water in its vicinity. Though Nanda s story of this folk lore may be apocryphal, it gives us a fairly good idea of the ecological properties of the pine (Chir) and the Oak (Banj) trees. 187
Not only the plantation of oak but also of some other broad leaved trees like Siling, Bargad, Peepal, Kharik, Dudhaila, Timil, Padam, Utis, Shahtut, Amla etc. are beneficial for augmenting the water wealth. Among them peepal tree is considered very sacred and it can be seen everywhere in Uttarakhand. It is called the tree of Brahama Vishnu and Mahesh. (Joshi & Bisht 2010: 66) small ponds, and other water resources. Digging tube wells and installing hand pumps for fulfilling water requirements in large numbers will prove dangerous in future for our coming generations because after some decades natural water resources will dry up and disappear from this region, consequently hand pumps and tube wells would also dry up due to lack of water. According to J.S.Rawat, (a well known hydrologist) these hand pumps are a curse for the hill areas, as in the absence of sufficient water, they extract water from deep below the earth s surface, which is needed to keep the earth wet. However the government is installing hand pumps all over the area of this state including villages. Though these hand pumps are being set up by the government to solve the water crisis, the installation of such hand pumps will only aggravate the water crisis in the Himalayan regions (Rawat 1988: 201-212). We can solve the problem of water scarcity by rain water harvesting as it is an appropriate technology for our hill state, Uttarakhnd. Rain water harvesting systems can collect a lot of rain water from roofs, 188
which can be lifted to over head tanks with solar water pumps. This water can be used even for drinking purposes after filtration through sand filters. Depressions in the mountainous areas of Uttarakhand are used for rainwater harvesting. Chaals or khals are most common and are made on the saddles between two peaks, which are used for collecting rain water. The unexploited land was converted into khal like formations by ancient communities; they dug them up and made stone masonry walls around them. That such khaals were widely known may be surmised from the abundance of place names suffixed with the word khaal as Agrakhaal, Paurikhaal, Dwarikhaal, Jharikhaal, Pandwakhaal, Ghingarikhaal and so on. Such khaals are common in the Garhwal region due to high frequency of pilgrimages; they have now developed into sprawling townships. H.G. Walton (Gazetteer on British Garhwal 1921) has mentioned Bironkhal, which is now on the borders of district Almora in Kumaun and district Pauri in Garhwal, that it was the name of a pass near Domila village, which was a much frequented camping ground (Manikant Shah, in press). Small ponds are also utilized for collecting rainwater. Smaller ponds are commonly known as tallias in the local language. Khals can collect much quantity of water which is used for irrigation and other proposes. In Pauri Garhwal district alone 70 khals have been recorded. These ponds are generally utilized for animals and rarely for human 189
use. Wild animals and birds also depend on these structures. Chuptaulas and simars are other natural rainwater harvesting configurations of this hilly region. These hole-like formations are also used by animals and occasionally by human beings. These save water from springs or water coming out of the earth. Simars, on the other hand, are natural features - a sort of quicksand that is found in agricultural fields in this region. High quality crops like basmati rice are sometimes grown in simars. Some medicinal plants and herbs are also grown in them (Chopra 2007: 35). 5.2. CONCLUSION The vital importance of these traditional water resources will remain forever in our social and cultural life. We are now realizing the potential of the technological capability of our ancestors. So the time has come when we must look back into the traditions of our past and learn to restore our relationships with nature and all forms of life. We should also respect the knowledge of our forefathers. We have considered the ecological and social advantages of these traditional water resources. It will help us understand our cultural legacy and glorious past. The next chapter is based upon folk medicine which was developed by the primitive people over centuries through trial and error and interaction with other regions by breaking the geographical barriers. 190