What Teachers Need to Know A. Islam Muhammad: The Last Prophet Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam is a monotheistic religion. Indeed, Islam accepts and builds on the revelation that forms the basis of those two earlier religions. Islamic scripture, the Qur an, accepts the prophets of the Jewish and Christian faiths, and especially stresses Abraham, Moses, Noah, and Jesus. The Qur an refers to Jesus as the Messiah and says that he was a great prophet, but not God or the son of God. The Qur an says that all people who believe in God and
the Final Judgment and who do good works will have nothing to fear in the afterlife. Muslims accept the revelations of the Old Testament, or Hebrew Bible, as well as the New Testament, but add to these the revelations of the prophet Muhammad. Those who practice Islam are called Muslims, and they worship Allah (the Arabic word for God). Muhammad was born in the Arabian city of Mecca (often spelled Makkah) in 570 CE and made his living as a merchant. A religious man, he often went to a cave to meditate. Muslims believe that in 610 CE, Allah, through the voice of the angel Gabriel, began to speak to Muhammad. For a time, Muhammad did not tell anyone other than his family and friends, but after a while, he was moved to preach. His message was simple: there was only one god, Allah (local religious belief was polytheistic, meaning that they believed in many gods), and the rich should share their wealth with the poor. As a result, many poor people began to listen to him. This angered and frightened the rich in Mecca, who thought they would lose their wealth. They began to persecute Muhammad s followers, so the growing community moved to Medina, where they could live freely and establish a society based on Islamic teachings. This journey took place in 622 CE and is known as the Hijra [HIJH-rah]. It marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, where Muhammad settled, his message of social justice and equality gained more followers. In time, Muhammad took on both a political role, as a leader of the city, and a military one. When Medina and Mecca went to war, Muhammad commanded the troops from Medina, and they defeated the Meccan troops in a series of battles. By 630 CE, Mecca agreed to submit to Muhammad s rule, and Muhammad marched triumphantly into the city. At the center of Mecca was a large shrine called the Ka`bah where Arabs built shrines to many gods. Muhammad destroyed the idols (statues and other symbols of gods that the tribes around Mecca believed in) at the Ka`bah. Since that time, the Ka`bah has become the holiest place in Islam, a place where every Muslim hopes to make a pilgrimage at least once. Muhammad sent missionaries throughout Arabia to convert the tribes to Islam, and from there the religion has spread around the world. Allah, Qur an, Jihad Allah [al-lah] is the Arabic word that Muhammad used to name the Supreme Being, or God. According to tradition, Muslims recognize 99 names or attributes of God, such as the Merciful and the Compassionate. The Qur an [kuh-ran] is the holy book of Islam. Muslims believe that Allah revealed these actual words to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. The Qur an contains rules for daily living, moral principles, references to events in the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament, and descriptions of Judgment Day and of heaven and hell. 35 Jihad [jee-hahd] is the Arabic word for struggle to do the will of God. Any serious effort to fulfill the Qur an s command to establish justice and intervene in corruption and injustice is called jihad. Muslims frequently describe jihad as being of two kinds. The greater jihad includes personal efforts, including controlling negative impulses like greed and anger, and pursuing knowledge in the service of humanity. The lesser jihad is military struggle, to be pursued only under certain specific circumstances. For example, military jihad must protect
civilians, especially women, children, and the elderly. Military jihad is required when people are attacked or are evicted from their home. One who dies in legitimate jihad is considered a martyr (shahid [sha-heed] or shahida [f]). Although today some terrorists call their actions jihad, they are not considered martyrs, since terrorism does not meet the requirements for legitimate jihad. Terrorism is waged without warning, without governmental authority, and often targets civilians. It is condemned by Islamic law. You may wish to explore the meaning of jihad with students so that they have a better sense of the true meaning of the word. Islam spread rapidly in the Arabian Peninsula. In the time of Muhammad and for some time afterward, Arabia was home to wandering tribes of Bedouins [beh-do-ins] (desert nomadic herders) who raided one another and the desert towns. After Muhammad s opponents in Mecca were defeated and joined the Muslim community, Islam spread quickly among the tribes. Muhammad and his immediate successors commanded loyal tribes that conquered other Bedouin tribes, ended the fighting among the groups, established law and order, and united the peninsula in an Islamic community. The leaders of Islam then turned their attention outward and began to raid the Byzantine and Persian Empires, driven by the desire to spread Islam. These two empires had been at war with each other for years. Their power was waning, and some of their subjects were dissatisfied with religious persecution. Finding these empires vulnerable, the Muslims pushed forward and began to take large portions of their territory. By the late 700s CE, Muslims were encouraging people in the lands they conquered to convert, and many found Islam an attractive religion. The principles were simple, easy to understand, and simple to follow. There were no intermediary priests and saints to pray to only God (Allah). The Third Pillar of Islam which focuses on acts of charity toward those less fortunate especially appealed to the poor and those concerned with social responsibility. Mecca, Mosques A mosque is a Muslim place of worship. It usually has one or two towers called minarets [mihn-uh-reht], and it is from there that a muezzin [moo-eh-zuhn] calls the faithful to prayer five times a day. The main prayer area of a mosque faces the holy city of Mecca. Islam has no priests and no hierarchy. Any Muslim man may lead the community of faithful in prayer. He is called the imam, or prayer leader. In Shi`i Islam, an imam is more than a prayer leader; he is the authoritative interpreter of the Qur an. Five Pillars of Islam Islam has five basic practices, known as pillars: the declaration of faith: There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. prayer five times a day, every day, facing the Ka`bah in the holy city of Mecca charity, the payment of a portion of one s wealth, which is used to help the needy
fasting during the day, between sunrise and sunset, during the month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. The purpose of fasting during Ramadan is to remind Muslims that all people are equally dependent upon the help of Allah and that there are less fortunate people who are in need of their help. Ramadan is a time of reflection when Muslims are called upon to renew their faith, increase their charity, and make repentance. a pilgrimage to worship at the Ka`bah in the holy city of Mecca, during the month of pilgrimage, at least once if one is physically and financially able. During the hajj, all Muslim men dress alike in a simple cloth called an ihram [ee-rahm], again to stress their equality. Women wear a simpler form of their normal dress. Islam Spreads Muhammad and his followers had converted much of the Arabian Peninsula to Islam. After Muhammad s death, leadership of the Muslim community passed into the hands of four of Muhammad s closest associates, or companions. They were highly respected, and people believed they ruled in accordance with the Qur an and the example set by Muhammad. For that reason they were called rightly guided (Rashidun) caliphs. A caliph is a successor to the prophet Muhammad. Islam continued to spread rapidly. By 100 years after Muhammad s death, the Islamic empire extended from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Indus River in the east. Between the years 632 CE, when Muhammad died, and 661 CE, when the last of the Rashidun caliphs died, Muslim control expanded from the Arabian Peninsula eastward through what are now the countries of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Iran, and Iraq. Some of this area was wrested from the slowly weakening Byzantine Empire. In 661 CE, a family known as the Umayyads took control of the caliphate (leadership of the Muslim community) and moved the capital to Damascus, in Syria. From there, they expanded Muslim sovereignty west across North Africa. Between 661 CE and 750 CE, they took control of what are today the nations of Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. From North Africa in the early 700s CE, Muslims swept across to the Iberian Peninsula (which they called Al-Andalus) and captured large parts of what are today Portugal and Spain. From there, they continued into France. In 732 CE, Charles Martel (the grandfather of Charlemagne), leader of the Franks, defeated Islamic troops between the cities of Poitiers and Tours in modernday France. The confrontation is known as both the Battle of Poitiers and the Battle of Tours. It was the end of Islamic expansion into Europe and a pivotal battle that, had the outcome been different, would certainly have changed the history of the Western world. It is possible that all, or most, of Europe might have become Muslim territory had the Islamic troops been victorious. Even after the defeat at Poitiers/Tours, Islamic kingdoms remained in Spain and all across North Africa. In 750 CE, another family, the Abbasids, took control of the Islamic caliphate and moved the capital to Baghdad, in Iraq. The empire continued to grow and prosper, and Baghdad became famous for its wealth and sophistication. One of the greatest Abbasid caliphs was Harun al-rashid, whose splendid court is depicted in the tales of A Thousand and One Arabian Nights. Harun was a contemporary of Charlemagne, with whom he corresponded and from whom he received gifts.
The Ottoman Empire In the 1000s, Turkic peoples from Central Asia moved into the Middle East and adopted Islam. The Seljuk Turks, as they were known, gained control of Baghdad and seized much of Asia Minor from the Byzantine Empire. In 1071, the Seljuk Turks moved on Jerusalem, which Christians considered their Holy City, since it was the city where Jesus was arrested, tried, and crucified. The successful expansion of Muslim sovereignty prompted the Byzantine emperor to ask the pope in Rome for assistance against the Muslims and the nearby Normans. He particularly wanted to protect Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, and also hoped to drive the Muslims from Jerusalem. The pope agreed, and this was the beginning of the Crusades. The first Crusade was launched in 1096. In the 1300s, another group of Turks moved into Islamic lands and converted to Islam. They were known as the Ottomans (descendants of Osman). The Ottoman Turks began their rise to power as mercenaries for the Seljuk Turks, who needed protection from the Mongols, warrior nomads who were raiding Seljuk territory. The Ottoman dynasty dates back to 1299, when Osman I began to expand Ottoman control at the expense of the Seljuks and the Byzantine Empire. In 1453, Constantinople, the Byzantine capital, was conquered by the Ottomans, and the Byzantine Empire, the last remnant of ancient Roman culture, ended. The year 1517, when the Ottomans captured Jerusalem and Cairo, is when the Ottoman Empire consolidated, and it was then that they claimed to be the successors to the earlier Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs. The peak of Ottoman power occurred in the early 1500s, under Süleyman I, also known as Süleyman the Magnificent. The empire stretched from the Black Sea and the Persian Gulf in the east to Budapest (in what is modern Hungary) in the north to Algiers in the west. At around the same time, the Muslim Safavid dynasty was established in Persia (present day Iran), and the Mughal Empire was established in the Indian subcontinent. The Safavids were Shi`i Muslims and competitors with the Sunni Ottomans. Known as a great leader of the Safavids, Abbas I made peace with the Ottomans and established a magnificent capital in Esfahan. Esfahan is still one of Iran s most beautiful cities, with many architectural structures attributed to the Safavids, including mosques, palaces, avenues, and schools. The Mughal Empire was established by Babur in 1526, when his troops gained control of Delhi. The greatest of the Mughals was Akbar, a powerful and sophisticated ruler who championed the arts and left many beautiful architectural monuments. His grandson, Shah Jahan, built the famous Taj Mahal as a mausoleum for his wife. Diversity of Modern Muslims While the first Muslims were Arabs, Islam today counts faithful around the world. Islam is the world s second-largest religion and the major religion in most of the countries of the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia. The largest number of Muslims in a single nation is in Indonesia, with 172 million out of a total population of about 230 million. Today, Islam is the second- or third-largest religious group in the United States.
Today, of the 1.3 billion Muslims in the world, 934 million are Sunnis and 180 million are Shi`is. There are subdivisions of Shi`i Islam, but the majority are called Twelvers (Ithna-Ashariyah). Shi`is predominate in Iran and Iraq. You may wish to explain to students that in the mid-600s CE, the followers of Muhammad split into two sects, Sunnis and Shi`is. Their differences were more political than doctrinal. Specifically, they differed over who was the rightful heir of Muhammad. The Sunni majority believed that the people should choose a leader not based on divine order but instead choose the person they believed was most capable of ruling in accordance with the current political situation and who could provide religious leadership and order for the community. The Shi`i Muslims believed the community should be led by a descendant of Muhammad. Since his closest living male relative at his death was his cousin and son-in-law, Ali, they thought he was the rightful leader of the Muslims. B. Development of Islamic Civilization As the Muslims spread their rule across North Africa into the Iberian Peninsula, through the Middle East, into the lands of the Byzantine Empire, and eastward throughout Persia and India, they came in contact with many different peoples and cultures. The result was a new civilization grounded in Islam but incorporating elements from many other cultures, which the Muslims in turn expanded and passed on in a cycle of cultural exchange. Contributions to Science and Mathematics An example of the amalgam of Islamic and non-islamic ideas is that of Hindu-Arabic numerals: 1, 2, 3, and so on. Some scholars believe that Hindus in India developed the system and that Arabs transmitted it to Europe. Another theory is that Muslim scholars discovered the numbers 0 9 in India and recognized their usefulness. Muslims also encouraged the translation of classical Greek mathematics texts into Arabic, and developed advanced mathematics. The term algebra comes from the Arabic word al-jabr [AHL JAH-buhr]. The Persian (modern Iran) mathematician al-khwarizmi developed algebra in the 800s CE and wrote a math text that was translated into Latin and used in Europe. Muhammad al-razi was a Persian physician who compiled a medical encyclopedia. Along with his own observations of disease were the opinions of Greek, Syrian, Persian, and Indian scientists. Al-Razi s work was translated into Latin and used for centuries in Europe. Avicenna, whose Arabic name was Ibn Sina, was a Persian physician and philosopher. In the 1000s CE, he compiled Canon of Medicine, which, when translated into Latin, became a standard medical text in Europe and remained the standard until the 17th century. A medical encyclopedia, the Canon of Medicine contained many useful observations; for instance, Ibn Sina noted that contaminated soil and water caused disease and that proper diet was important to good health. He also adapted Aristotelian philosophy to Islam. His philosophical works, and those of Spanish Muslim Ibn Rushd (known as Averroes in Europe), were the first source of Europe s knowledge of the ancient Greek philosophers works.
Preservation of Greek and Roman Writings By the time of the Muslim conquests, western Europe had broken up into small feudal states with economies based on agricultural labor. There was little time for education and the arts during the Middle Ages. However, through conquests, various Greek, Persian, and Sanskrit writings came into Muslim possession. Rather than destroy them, Muslim scholars carefully preserved these works, translating them into Arabic, studying them, and, in many cases, incorporating these ideas into their own work. It should be noted that Jewish scholars in Muslim-held areas, such as Spain and Egypt, also studied and used Greek, Persian, and Sanskrit writings in their work. One of the best known is Moses Maimonides, who lived in Cordoba, Spain, but then fled religious persecution after the fall of Cordoba to a fanatical Islamic sect called the Almohads. Maimonides and his family moved to Morocco, then Palestine, and finally settled in Cairo, Egypt. There, Maimonides was a physician and philosopher who tried in his writings to reconcile science and religion. He was also appointed to be the court physician to Sultan Salah al-din and his family. Had it not been for the effort of these scholars writing in Arabic, many works of the ancient Greeks and Romans would not have been preserved for later Europeans. Cities as Centers of Islamic Art and Learning Artists and scholars were working in many Muslim cities Baghdad, Istanbul, Timbuktu, Esfahan, Samarkand, Damascus, and Cairo, for example. The cities of Andalusia in southern Spain were especially rich centers of scientific work and artistic development. Spain was a major route by which Muslim scholarship reached Europeans. Cordoba Of the main cities of Andalusia Cordoba, Granada, and Seville Cordoba is perhaps best known for its intellectual and cultural contributions. Known throughout Europe as a great city, Cordoba had a population of about 250,000 at the end of the 10th century, and its library was by far the largest in Europe. It had over 400,000 books, compared to the average collection of fewer than 100 books in most monastery libraries at the time. Any resident of Paris, Rome, or London in the 1000s would have marveled at Cordoba s paved and lighted streets, and its mosques, palaces, and other beautiful buildings. Columns, arches, and domes became characteristic of Islamic architecture. The Great Mosque in Cordoba is an excellent example of Islamic architecture. Islamic art is highly stylized. Islam did not allow the use of human or animal forms in art out of concern that people may begin to worship statues (idols) and because it was perceived that man should not attempt to depict the likenesses of God s creations with their imperfect abilities. Muslim artists used curvilinear patterns, as well as Arabic script often passages from the Qur an as decorative motifs. The curvilinear form of design featuring floral and vegetal plants became known as arabesque. However, it should be noted that despite the prohibition against using human and animal figures in Islamic art dating back to the early
days of Islam, these prohibitions varied from place to place and from time to time. For example, Iranian artists and artists in the Mughal Empire in India developed a style of miniature painting that included humans as subjects. The buildings in Cordoba, like the Great Mosque, reflect the traditional Islamic style. The architecture of Islamic civilization produced two of the most beautiful buildings in the world. In Granada, Spain, the Alhambra is a palace and fortress built in the 13th century that still astonishes visitors. The Mughal Empire in India produced the Taj Mahal. For more information on these buildings, see the Visual Arts section. The citizens and visitors of Cordoba included the poet and theologian Ibn Hazim and the philosopher Ibn Arabi, as well as the Jewish poet Judah ha-levi and philosopher and poet Ibn Gabriol. C. Wars Between Muslims and Christians The Holy Land and Jerusalem The term Holy Land refers to an area off the eastern Mediterranean Sea that comprises parts of the West Bank of the Jordan River (Palestinian territory) and the modern nations of Israel, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. Jews, Christians, and Muslims consider this area sacred because it contains many sites associated with events described in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic scripture. Jerusalem, one of Islam s three holy cities, is located in the Holy Land and is also considered sacred by Jews and Christians because it is the location of many monuments associated with scriptural events, such as the Wailing Wall (all that is left of the Second Temple), which is sacred to Jews, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, containing the tomb of Jesus, which is sacred to Christians. These sites are also sacred to Muslims, who accept the Jewish and Christian figures as great Islamic prophets. Muslims also cherish the Dome of the Rock and other sites in Jerusalem. The Dome of the Rock is a sanctuary over a spot visited by Muhammad on his spiritual night journey (see Islamic Art and Architecture, pp. 258 268). The Crusades The Crusades were invasions of the Middle East by European Christians from the 11th 13th centuries and beyond. There were eight major Crusades fought over 200 years. The ultimate goal of the Crusades was to free the Holy Land from Islamic control. The First Crusade was begun by Pope Urban II to answer the Byzantine emperor s appeal for help in ensuring safe passage for Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem (discussed earlier on p. 135). The Seljuk Turks had captured the Holy Land, and there was concern that they would bar Christians. The Crusades were unsuccessful in achieving their original goal, but they did result in increased trade between Europe and the Middle East. Many Crusaders remained in the Middle East and established lucrative businesses. The remains of many Crusaders castles can still be seen in Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. However, the Crusades are also controversial, since they resulted in many atrocities, including attacks on Jews and Christians, as well as Muslims.
Crusade Date Outcome First 1096 1099 Crusaders took Jerusalem, turned many Muslim shrines into Christian churches, and established four Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land. Second 1147 1149 Church of the Holy Sepulchre was consecrated. Muslims and Jews were banned from Jerusalem. Third 1189 1191 Unable to defeat Salah al-din, Richard I arranged a truce with Salah al-din to allow Christians access to Jerusalem. Most of Holy Land remained under Muslim control. Fourth 1202 1204 Crusaders, acting out of both religious and financial antagonism for the Byzantine Empire, shifted their attention to Constantinople. The Byzantine emperor later retook his empire, but the empire never recovered its former strength. Fifth 1218 1221 Crusaders marched on Egypt but failed to achieve their objective and retreated. Sixth 1228 1229 Truce was arranged and Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth were turned over to the Christians. Seventh 1248 1254 After Muslim forces retook Jerusalem, the Seventh Crusade was called but accomplished little. Jews, who had been banned by earlier Crusaders, were allowed to return to Jerusalem. Eighth 1270 1272 Crusaders attacked North Africa but withdrew. Crusaders negotiated an 11-year truce in the Holy Land. Salah al-din (Saladin) and Richard the Lion-Hearted Of the many warriors who fought on either side in the Crusades, two stand out: Richard the Lion-Hearted and Salah al-din. Richard the Lion-Hearted, King Richard I of England, led the Third Crusade against Salah al-din known as Saladin to Europeans and his Muslim forces. As one writer noted, Salah al-din was famed for his chivalry. An example is Salah al-din s gift of a horse to Richard after Richard s horse had been killed in battle. Salah al-din said that a warrior of Richard s caliber should not have to fight on foot. When Richard became ill, Salah al-din sent him fruit and his own doctor to take care of him. Another example of Salah al-din s chivalry was his toleration of Christians and his agreement to allow pilgrims access to the holy shrines of Jerusalem. This contrasts sharply with the actions of the Christian conquerors of the First Crusade who killed many civilians, including Jews, Christians, and Muslims. 36 Richard was an able rival to Salah al-din but was deserted by his co-leader, King Philip Augustus of France. Still, Richard might have prevailed, but troubling news from England, where his scheming brother Prince (later King) John was undermining his government, caused Richard to seek the best peace he could make with Salah al-din.
East and West: Trade and Cultural Exchange After numerous attempts, the Crusaders failed to achieve their objective of taking control of the Holy Land from the Muslims. However, there were a number of unintended benefits for the Europeans. As noted in Section II, Europe in the Middle Ages, (pp. 101 127) the contact between East and West broadened the worldview of western Europeans. The volume of trade between Europe and Asia by way of the Middle East grew, as did the variety of goods available in Europe. Sugar, salt, silks, rice, perfumes, and similar luxury items now appeared for sale in the growing towns of western Europe. Western scholars began to study the writings of Muslim and Jewish scholars and, through them, the knowledge of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Much of the original work of the Muslim and Jewish scholars influenced Western philosophy, medicine, science, and mathematics for centuries.
Characteristics of Islamic Art Take a look at the included reproduction of the illuminated manuscript Layla and Majnun at School. What immediately strikes you about this work? The color, abundant design, inclusion of writing in the form of calligraphy? How about the architectural references? This small piece exemplifies many of the most important characteristics of Islamic art. The term Islamic art describes both the pieces created specifically in the service of the religion of Islam as well as secular art produced in the lands it influenced. The prophet Muhammad began spreading the religion of Islam in the early 7th century CE. Muslims believe that Allah [ah-lah] (the Arabic word for God) made his divine revelations to the prophet Muhammad (c. 570 632 CE) around 610 CE. These revelations were then written down, becoming the Qur an [kuh-ran], the holy book that describes Islamic faith, practice, and law.
Because the written word has long been associated with the Qur an, calligraphy elegant handwriting became the supreme element of Islamic art. Calligraphy is very important to Islamic culture; it appears in secular art, as well. Artists included calligraphy on secular works such as metalwork, pottery, stone, glassware, and palace architecture (see the discussion and Looking Questions for the Court of the Lions in the Alhambra Palace on pp. 264 265). Reexamine Layla and Majnun at School. Do the figures or the designs dominate the scene? Figures appear in this secular work, but they would not appear in public religious art because the Qur an forbids idolatry, or the worship of images. As a result, purely decorative elements prevail in Islamic religious art, often filling virtually every available space. These decorative elements appear in secular works as well. The curvilinear, ornate interweaving of abstract shapes and floral and vegetal imagery (as seen in Layla and Majnun at School and along the walls of the Alhambra) is called arabesque meaning in the Arab style. Islamic reliance on pattern and design heightens the flat quality of two-dimensional surfaces. Islamic paintings, furthermore, do not employ the illusionist, single-point perspective that is typical in Western art. Instead, a figure s size commonly denotes its importance, as evident in Layla and Majnun at School. Notice the large teacher in the white turban. He sits on top of the redbordered, black rug. Even though we know that the carpet lies flat on the floor, it simultaneously appears to be an extension of the back wall. Islamic representational painting plays with the idea of space in other ways. The illuminator has shown us the inside, outside, and rooftop of the building. We see consecutive events happening simultaneously in different spaces, and this tells a narrative story of both time and space. Islamic artistic expressions are not limited to architecture and miniatures, but also include rugs, textiles, metalware, pottery, glassware, carved wood (doors, panels, ceilings, etc.), and stucco (highly decorative molded plaster applied to walls and arches). The decorations applied to these objects show a love of materials and an elegance of design. Opulent color is another common characteristic of Islamic art. Gold shimmers on manuscript pages. Stucco, textiles, ceramics, metalwork, stone, and glasswork are all visually splendid. Royal patrons paid for the expensive materials and the sacred and secular art they commissioned in turn reflected their wealth, status, and prestige. Islamic rulers also built mosques, paying for their construction, furnishings, and decorations. Religious buildings served the spiritual needs of the community and also functioned as headquarters for educational and charitable institutions. Domes, minarets, and pointed arches are among the most prominent features of Islamic architecture. The miniaturist even depicted two of these elements in Layla and Majnun at School. Locate the blue dome and also the pointed arch created where the white and blue floral patterns meet in the central background right over the main action of the composition. Now examine the luminous gold dome in the included reproduction of the Dome of the Rock. (See the discussion and Looking Questions on pp. 263 264 for more information.) The dome reflects the piety of the master builders Rija ibn Haya and Yazid ibn Salim, who spent all their wealth on the monument. You ll also find pointed arches in the included reproduction of the Court of the Lions in the Alhambra Palace. (See the discussion and Looking Questions on pp. 264 265 for more information.)
The third element of Islamic architecture is the minaret. Minarets are slender towers from which a muezzin [moo-eh-zuhn] (crier) on a balcony beckons the faithful to pray five times a day. The Taj Mahal has splendid minarets and domes. This impressive, pure white-marble building in Agra, India, is not a mosque, but a tomb, built in honor of and named for Mumtaz Mahal, the favorite wife of the Muslim emperor Shah Jahan. Minarets anchor this elegant architectural testimony of love, which took over 20,000 workers approximately 20 years to complete. Islamic architecture thrived not only in mosques and madrasahs (religious colleges), but in secular buildings as well, such as palaces (see the discussion and Looking Questions for the Court of the Lions in the Alhambra Palace on pp. 264 265), khans (inns), hospitals, and sooks (bazaars).
The Dome of the Rock (c. 688 691 CE) 6 The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is the oldest complete example of Islamic architecture that is still standing. It was built as a shrine to mark the place from which Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended into heaven on his Night Journey, and it is also where they believe the Last Judgment will occur. Jews and Christians revere this sacred ground as the site upon which King Solomon built a temple to Yahweh to commemorate Abraham s sacrifice and to house the Ark of the Covenant between the Jewish people and God. Abd al-malik, a member of the first Muslim dynasty, had the shrine built between 688 and 691 CE. Islam was still a nascent religion at the time, and the Arabs were in the process of a military conquest that took them from the Arabian Peninsula into Persia, North Africa, and western Europe. Before the Muslim expansion, Jerusalem had been part of the Byzantine Empire and had attracted a great number of Christian pilgrims. The city was full of monuments to the Christian faith, including the impressive Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Chapel of Ascension. For this reason, Abd al-malik sought not only to mark Jerusalem as a Muslim holy place, but also to build a lasting monument for his faith. By picking a site with religious significance for Jews, Christians, and Muslims alike, Abd al-malik ensured that the Dome of the Rock both celebrates the common heritage of these religions and asserts the primacy of Islam. For Muslims, the Dome of the Rock (also known as the Mosque of Omar) marks the site where the prophet Muhammad ascended to the heavens to receive Allah s instructions, which Muhammad then delivered to his followers upon his return to earth. The shrine consists of an octagonal structure built on top of an elevated platform. Within this structure, 12 columns and four piers support a cylindrical drum upon which rest two enormous domes, an internal spherical dome of wood, and an external elliptical dome covered with gilded aluminum. Each side of the octagon measures about 66 feet (20 meters), and the top of the elliptical dome is 149 feet (45 meters) high. The plan of the shrine echoes that of several early churches, such as the Church of St. Costanza in Rome, the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. However, the elliptical dome was unique to Muslim architecture. The monument is filled with rich symbolism. Its glittering dome (of wood, originally overlaid with lead and gilding) thrusts upward, representing heaven, Allah s realm. Porcelain tiles today replace the original glass mosaic facing, whose beauty indicated the magnificence of God s earth. The Dome of the Rock today is a shrine for pilgrims. There is a mosque adjacent to it for prayers. Slender minarets are an essential element in Islamic architecture and appear on mosques and many other Muslim religious buildings. The prophet Muhammad s compound in Medina was the first place Muslims gathered for prayer. His compound, with an enclosed courtyard, a building at one end for prayer, and arcades on the sides, became the model for all mosques.
What does the gold tell you about the building? The expensive materials used in this building show that it is important. This building is a mosque, a place of worship like a church or temple. How does the top half of the mosque contrast with the bottom half? The bottom half of the mosque is more decorative and has flat sides, which create an octagonal form. The dome is round a hemisphere on top of the vertical lines. Why are the materials used in this building especially appropriate for a desert climate? The sun reflects off the gold dome. Which parts of this building are symmetrical? Can you find any parts that are not? The building is mostly symmetrical, though some of the wall decoration is not. Court of the Lions, the Alhambra Palace (mid-14th 7 century) The Alhambra was the largest of the great alcazars, or fortresses, that the Moors built in Spain. Its history, like that of most of medieval Spain, is complex and often difficult to unravel. Indirectly, it began with the Moorish invasion from North Africa in the 7th century CE. By 732 CE, these adherents of Islam had conquered Spain and reached Poitiers in southern France. Here, they were met and defeated by an army of Christian defenders led by Charles Martel. For the next 700 years, Christians and Muslims fought for control of the Iberian Peninsula. The Muslims, handicapped by internal strife and intrigue, as well as external pressures from the Moors in North Africa and the Christians in the north, began to give way in 976 CE. Granada, the city in southern Spain where the Alhambra was built, was not much more than a village in the early days of Muslim dominion. By 1025 CE, however, it had grown enough to attract the attention of the Zirids, Muslim Berber kings of one part of Muslim Spain, who began building fortifications on the site of what later became the Alhambra. It has also been suggested that the famous stone lions that are now part of the magnificent Court of the Lions were built at this time. The Alhambra consists of a vast fortified enclosure, within which an alcazaba (military fortress with barracks, stables, etc.), a palace area, and a craftworker s quarter are situated. The entire complex includes a dazzling array of domes, courts, vaults, columns, galleries, and gardens. The perimeter of the enclosure measures some 7,218 feet (2,200 meters), and is studded with no fewer than 22 towers of various shapes and sizes. The beautifully constructed palace area includes three main sections, the Mexuar (believed to be where the royal court met), the Palacio de Comares (built around a splendid rectangular pool), and the Palacio de los Leones (which surrounds a courtyard with a fountain supported by carved stone lions). Much of the palace area is decorated with geometric patterns and poetic calligraphy rendered in stucco, tile, or wood paneling. This ornamentation is often quite intricate and detailed. For example, 8,017 pieces of different-colored woods were used in the decoration of one room alone, the Hall of Ambassadors. In some places, the interior design of the Alhambra reflects the influence of
Christian art on the Muslim community in Spain. Contrary to the conventions of Islamic art, the Hall of Kings contains several ceiling paintings of men at war, all of which appear to be in Gothic style. The space is elegant. The slim (sometimes double) marble columns stand below the arches the rounded ones inspired by Roman architecture as well as the Muslim pointed arches. Stucco (plaster used in decoration) creates a rich surface texture, filling every flat space with intricate, abstract designs. The lacy, linear patterns repeat in the calligraphy around the fountain rim. The calligraphy is an Arabic poem that describes how the fierce lions are behaving themselves out of respect for the king. The fountain s burbling water adds to the beauty of the palace. Washington Irving, an American writer whose work students study this year in language arts, briefly lived in the Alhambra. Irving was serving as an American diplomat in Spain from 1826 1829, and while there, he resided in and wrote about the Alhambra. Irving published his sketches and stories as The Alhambra in 1832 (see More Resources). Irving later returned to Spain from 1842 1846 as the U.S. ambassador to Spain. Looking questions Note: Cover up the title on the front of the print before showing to students. If you closed your eyes in this courtyard, what sounds would you hear? You would hear water from the fountain. What animals surround the fountain? Lions surround the fountain. What different shapes of arches are used in the building? There are both pointed and rounded arches. What kind of decoration covers the walls? There are abstract patterns covering the walls. What examples of Islamic art and architecture do you see in the picture? There are two types of arches and decorative mosaics along the top of the walls. Point out the geometric patterns. Taj Mahal (1630 1653) 8 The building of the Taj Mahal was an act of love and devotion. Shah Jahan, one of the early Muslim emperors during the Mughal reign in India, built it as the final resting place for his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died in childbirth. During their 18 years of marriage, the couple had 14 children. Mumtaz Mahal often accompanied Shah Jahan on his military campaigns. The pair s love was remarkable in an era when most royal marriages were political and/or economic alliances, rather than matters of the heart. 47 Although the Taj Mahal is fit for royalty, it is not a palace, but a large tomb, or mausoleum. The Taj Mahal consists of four main elements the main gateway, garden, mosque, and the mausoleum itself. Passages from the Qur an decorate the outside of the palace, along with intertwined floral mosaic designs. One of the most striking features of the Taj Mahal is its proportionality the calligraphy, for example, increases in size so that it maintains its perspective relative to the position of the viewer. Numerous sources cite the Indian architect of Persian descent, Ustad Ahmad
Lahori, as the designer. Skilled masons, craftworkers, sculptors, and calligraphers from Persia, the Ottoman Empire, and Europe all participated in the construction of the Taj Mahal. The building took about 20,000 workers more than 20 years to complete. Building materials, which included marble, jade, crystal, turquoise, and sapphire, came from all over India and Asia. It is estimated that the Taj Mahal cost more than 32,000,000 rupees an astronomical sum for the time. Looking questions What attracts your attention about this building? The colors, the dome, and different kinds of towers in this building immediately attract your attention. What do you think the building might be used for? Answers may include a church, the home of someone important, etc. Explain that the building was commissioned as a memorial to the wife of Emperor Shah Jahan by the emperor himself. Where are examples of three important Islamic architectural features? The domes, minarets, and pointed arches are examples of important Islamic architectural features. Point out the minarets. What are minarets used for? What do they tell us about Shah Jahan? Minarets are used in Islamic culture to call people to prayer. Shah Jahan was a Muslim. 9 Khawja Shayebhn, Oldest Handwritten Qur an (1649) The Qur an is the cornerstone of the Muslim faith and a guide for all facets of life. Muslims believe that the angel Gabriel transmitted its contents to the prophet Muhammad from about 610 CE until Muhammad s death in 632 CE. As Muhammad received these revelations, he recited them to scribes, who kept a written record. In 651 CE, after Muhammad s death, the writings were collected into a standard version of 14 suras (chapters). It is the importance of the Qur an in Muslim life that encouraged the development of the exquisite calligraphy that plays such a predominant role in Islamic art. The calligraphy that communicates the words of the Qur an is considered an art form of the noblest pursuit. The prohibition against figural decoration in religious art means that there are no pictures of Muhammad or other persons in illuminated manuscripts of the Qur an. Rather, calligraphy is a focal point, as geometric and floral designs enhance each page. Looking questions This is a handwritten Qur an. Can you see the handwriting? The writing is in the center of the page. What kind of balance is used in the decoration of these pages? The decoration of these pages is symmetrical. What types of lines are used in the design? Vertical, horizontal, and curving lines are used in the design. What types of shapes are used? Both geometric and organic shapes are used. Why might the designer have used this combination of lines and shapes? This combination of lines and shapes provides balance and structure, but also offers variety.
How does the decoration send a message about the words on the page and about the book itself? The decoration focuses attention on the words and provides an elaborate frame for them. The decoration also emphasizes the importance of the book. Compare the page from the Book of Kells with the pages of the Qur an. How are they similar? How are they different? Answers will vary.