DEVELOPING A PERSUASIVE ARGUMENT
STEP 1: BRAINSTORM brain storm n. A sudden clever plan or idea. A sudden, violent disturbance of the mind. v. brain stormed, brain storm ing, b rain storms v. intr. To engage in or organize brainstorming. v. tr. To consider or investigate (an issue, for example) by brainstorming. To think of or produce (a solution to a problem, for example) by brainstorming. brain'storm'er n.
STEP 2: GATHER INFORMATION / RESEARCH re search noun 1.diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation into a subject in order to discover or revise facts, theories, applications, etc.:recent research in medicine. 2.a particular instance or piece of research. verb (used without object) 3.to make researches; investigate carefully. verb (used with object) 4.to make an extensive investigation into: to research a matter thoroughly. Origin: 1570 80; (v.) < MF recercher to seek, OF, equiv. to re- re- + cercher tosearch; (n.) < MF recerche Related forms: re search a ble, adjective re search er, re search ist, noun Synonyms: y 1. scrutiny, study. See investigation. 4. study, inquire, examine, scrutinize.
STEP 3: the sis CONSTRUCT A WORKING THESIS noun, plural -ses 1.a proposition stated or put forward for consideration, esp. one to be discussed and proved or to be maintained against objections:he vigorously defended his thesis on the causes of war. (WHICH MAY BE CHANGED, STRENGTHENE D, OR ELABORATED LATER). 2.a subject for a composition or essay. 3.a dissertation on a particular subject in which one has done original research, as one presented by a candidate for a diploma or degree. 4.Music. the downward stroke in conducting; downbeat. Comparearsis (def. 1).5.Prosody.a.a part of a metrical foot that does not bear the ictus or stress.b.(less commonly) the part of a metrical foot that bears the ictus. Compare arsis ass(def. 2).6.Philosophy. See under Hegelian dialectic.origin: 1350 1400; ME < L < Gk thésis a setting down, something set down, equiv. to the- (s. of tithénai to put, set down) + -sis -sis Synonyms: 1. theory, contention, proposal.
TYPES OF ARGUMENT: TYPE 1: CLAIMS OF FACT Claims of fact assert that something is or was or will be. They include, for instance, arguments about cause and effect, correlation, probability and states of affairs. To prove a claim of fact you must present evidence. Examples: Vanilla is the most popular flavor of ice cream in the United States. Pornography stimulates violence against women. Pornography has the potential of leading to violence. Pornography serves a useful social purpose because it offers a harmless release of impulses that might otherwise be released in such activities as molestation or rape. Capital punishment reduces crime. Capital punishment does not reduce crime. [Note: all of these claims require evidence in order to be valid claims.]
TYPES OF ARGUMENT: TYPE 2: CLAIMS OF VALUE Claims of value concern what is right or wrong, good or bad, better or worse than something else. Weak examples: Country music deserves to be taken seriously. Capital punishment is barbaric. Euthanasia is immoral. Euthanasia is moral. An effective claim of value explains the standards that support its claim. Better examples: Sex education programs in schools are appropriate because society has a duty to provide what most parents are reluctant to provide. Docto s sho ld be pe mitted to end a patient s life if the Doctors should be permitted to end a patient s life if the patient makes such a request, because each of us should be free to make the decisions that most concern us.
TYPES OF ARGUMENT: TYPE 3: CLAIMS OF POLICY Claims of policy assert that a policy, law, or custom should be initiated or altered or dropped. Such claims usually are characterized by words like should, must, and ought. Examples: Children should be allowed to vote, if they wish to. A course in minority cultures ought to be required. The federal tax on gasoline must be raised. Claims of value can be argued by using both facts and values as evidence. Example using a historical argument: Until 1920 women were not allowed to vote in the United States, as they were not considered to be mentally fit for the task. Our children s ability to vote has been avoided for the same reason, but considering how clearly wrong legislators were about female suffrage during the early years of our democracy, it follows that we should reconsider whether allowing children to vote.
STEP 4: ar gu ment ORGANIZE YOUR RESEARCH AND IDEAS INTO AN ARGUMENT TO PROVE YOUR THESIS noun 1.an oral disagreement; verbal opposition; contention; altercation:a violent argument. 2.a discussion involving differing points of view; debate: They were deeply involved in an argument about inflation. 3.a process of reasoning; series of reasons: I couldn't follow his argument. 4.a statement, reason, or fact for or against a point: This is a strong argument in favor of her theory. 5.an address or composition intended to convince or persuade; persuasive discourse. 6.subject matter; theme: The central argument of his paper was presented clearly. 7.an abstract or summary of the major points in a work of prose or poetry, or of sections of such a work. Origin: 1325 75; ME (< OF) < L argūmentum. See argue, -ment
STEP 5: CONSIDER HOW YOUR EVIDENCE AND ARGUMENTS CAN BE PRESENTED USING PERSUASIVE TECHNIQUE S. PERSUASIVE TECHNIQUES: * APPEAL TO EMOTION (TO INTENSIFY TO FACTS) * APPEAL TO REASON * CLAIMS OF FACT * CLAIMS OF VALUE * CLAIMS OF POLICY * EXAMPLES: * REAL EXAMPLES * INVENTED INSTANCES * ANALOGIES * TESTIMONY * STATISTICS * PROVIDE A DEFINITION * POINT OUT IRONY OR ABSURDITY
TECHNIQUE 1: AN APPEAL TO EMOTION Intensify the facts of your argument to the reader by providing emotionally evocative evidence. Examples: We are considering whether legislation should govern police actions. The writer describes a photograph showing the battered face of a victim of alleged police brutality. We are considering whether vivisection (surgery on a live animal for research purposes) p should be allowed. The author describes the cages in which animals are kept and the expressions on their faces while undergoing vivisection. RULES TO FOLLOW: Never falsify (especially by oversimplifying) the issue. Do not distract attention from the facts of the case.
TECHNIQUE 2: AN APPEAL TO REASON Cite logic whose validity (i.e., truth) is undeniable. (Aristotle: If a equals b, and b equals c, then a must equal c.) ) Example: C.S. Lewis (author of the Chronicles of Narnia) on vivisection: A rational discussion of this subject begins by inquiring whether pain is, or is not, an evil. If it is not, then the case against vivisection falls. But then so does the case for vivisection. If it is not defended on the ground that it reduces human suffering, on what ground can it be defended? And if pain is not an evil, why should human suffering be reduced? We must therefore assume as a basis for the whole discussion that pain is an evil, otherwise there is nothing to be discussed. Now if pain is an evil then the infliction of pain, considered itself, must clearly be an evil act.. If pain (B) is an evil (A) [A = B], and inflicting pain (C) yields pain (B) [B = C], then inflicting pain (C) is an evil (A) [A = C]. Vivisection (which inflicts pain) is evil. Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis on government wiretapping: Decency, security and liberty alike demand that government officials shall be subjected to the same rules of conduct that are commands to the citizen. In a government of laws, existence of the government will be imperiled if it fails to observe the law scrupulously. Our Government is the potent, the omnipresent teacher. For good or for ill, it teaches the whole people by its example. Crime is contagious. If the Government becomes the lawbreaker, it breeds contempt for the law; it invites every man to become a law unto itself; it invites anarchy.
TECHNIQUE 3: EVIDENCE: REAL EXAMPLES Real examples are actual instances that have occurred. Examples of real examples: Columbine in an argument about gun safety. September 11 th in an argument about the fragility of our economic system. Gandhi as an example of how nonviolent action can prevail over military rule.
TECHNIQUE 4: EVIDENCE: INVENTED INSTANCES Invented instances allow you to argue a point without the distractions of a particular case and its irrelevant details. Examples of an invented example: Suppose army X invades city Y. Militarily, city Y knows itself to be inferior to army X; however, city Y knows that the injustice of the invasion will be apparent to invaders (both the soldiers of army X and the citizens back in country X), so they implement a strategy of nonviolent resistance.
TECHNIQUE 5: EVIDENCE: ANALOGY An analogy is a comparison pointing out several resemblances between two rather different things. Examples of analogies: The government of a country is like a basketball team; its wars are like tournaments. During times of intense military pressure, as in the final moments of a basketball game, it s often the case that there s not enough time for the democratic process. Decisions must be made quickly, just as a coach must be unquestioned by his players during the last plays before the final buzzer. That movie is like a new red Cadillac with the engine taken out. You can sit inside, enjoy the interior, marvel at the look of it, but ultimately it doesn t go anywhere.
TECHNIQUE 6: EVIDENCE: TESTIMONY Testimony is the citation of authorities. In order to prove a point you may turn to experts on a given subject or area of research. Examples: In persuading us about unifying the United States political climate red states versus blue states you might cite Abraham Lincoln, who wrote about a divided America during the time of the Civil War. Dangers of using expert testimony: The words of authorities may be taken out of context or otherwise distorted. The authorities may not be authorities on the present topic. (What was true in the case about which he or she is most expert may not be true in the case you re presenting.)
TECHNIQUE 7: Statistics... EVIDENCE: STATISTICS Example: In an argument about raising the driving age you would inevitably want to discuss statistics about accidents and their correlation with age. After Florida legislature passed the gun control legislation, the number of gun homicides actually increased by 3%. The danger of using statistics: Their significance may be difficult to access (e.g., in the above example, the 4% increase in gun deaths is true, but it s also true that population of Florida grew by over 3% in the same year).
TECHNIQUE 8: Define one of the important words in your argument. EVIDENCE: DEFINITION Example: In an argument about abortion and the right to life, it would likely be necessary for the essayist to define the word life. In an essay about terrorism, it would make an argument more persuasive if the term terrorism is defined. d
TECHNIQUE 9: POINT OUT IRONY AND ABSURDITY IN THE OPPOSING ARGUMENT As with appealing to emotion, appealing to our sense of the ridiculousness of an opposing argument can be very persuasive. Political l correctness seems to mean taking every word in the English language, scrutinizing it for any way that it could possibly offend any one person, and using this criterion to ban its use in day-to-day speech. For example, I can no longer grow up and be a fireman, a policeman, a mailman, or a woman. I may not even be allowed to call myself female. Does this mean that I am fated to call myself testosteronally-challenged, t t or maybe x- chromosomally gifted? Am I a chauvanist pig if I I like to be known as a woman, or if I refer to my daughter as my little girl? By some politically correct standards, yes.