Islam comes from the word submission or surrender. A Muslim is one who, following the teaching of the Quran, seeks absolute submission to a unique and personal god, Allah (the God). Muslims like their Jewish and Christian predecessors seek to understand and participate in God s will for history. For the Muslim this means establishing God s rule on earth through the creation of a transnational Islamic community or through the creation of socially just societies. Islam is the second largest religion with an estimated 1.2 Billion followers in fifty-six countries. The majority of Muslims live in non-arab societies such as Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, and Nigeria. Islam is the second and third largest religion in Europe (especially France, Germany and England) and in America. Islam: The formative era Arabian society and religion before Islam Before Islam, Arabian society was tribal in nature individuals lived in extended families. Several related families constituted a clan; several clans constituted a tribe. Arabian religion consisted of a pantheon of tribal gods and goddesses each town having its own divine protector and shrine. In Mecca the Kabba (a cube shaped building) was a major center of pilgrimage and housed the idols of 360 tribal Gods. Tribal polytheism came to be viewed by early Muslims a source of much of the violence and social inequities of the age. Allah (the God) originally was the chief god in the Arabian pantheon the creator and sustainer of the universe. Arabia had several monotheistic influences at this time including Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians and Arab monotheists (hanifs) who claimed to be descended from Abraham.
Muhammad Muhammad Ibn Abdullah (son of Abdullah) was born in 570 CE in the city of Mecca. Little is known of his life before he received his call to be Gods messenger. What is known is that he was born into the ruling tribe of Mecca, but from one of its poorer families. His father died before his birth and his mother died when he was 6 years old. As a young adult he found employment working for a caravan business. At 25 he married a wealthy 40 year old widow named Khadijah. Khadijah was Muhammad s strongest supporter and the first convert to Islam. She was Muhammad s sole wife until her death 28 years later. By the age of 30 Muhammad was a successful businessman and prominent member of Meccan society. His nickname was the trustworthy Muhammad would regularly retreat to Mount Hira where he would contemplate his life in solitude. The Night of Power and Excellence In the year 610 during the month of Ramadan, Muhammad (at the age of 40) was on retreat at Mount Hira when he received his first revelation from God. The event, which transformed Muhammad from an ordinary businessman to the messenger of God, is remembered by Muslims as the Night of Power and Excellence Allah spoke to Muhammad though an intermediary which Islamic tradition holds was the angel Gabriel. Surah 96:1-5 Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created- Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,- He Who taught (the use of) the pen,- Taught man that which he knew not. Muhammad continued to receive revelations for two more decades together they form the text of the Quran
Surah 97:1-5 We have indeed revealed this (Message) in the Night of Power: And what will explain to thee what the night of power is? The Night of Power is better than a thousand months. Therein come down the angels and the Spirit by Allah.s permission, on every errand: Peace!...This until the rise of morn! Muhammad is sometimes called the living Quran by Muslims. His life and example is taken to be the ideal model of a human being. In Islam, Muhammad is the last in a long line of Prophets including Jesus and Moses. Muhammad is the final prophet. Correcting the mistakes of earlier traditions Gods revelation is thought to be perfected and completed forever in the Quran. The Quran Muslims believe the Quran like the Jewish Torah and the Christian Gospel is taken from a perfect heavenly Arabic tablet, preexisting with God in heaven. The earthly Quran is the finite expression of this eternal revelation. The Quran is taken by a majority of Muslims as the literal and eternal and final word of God. The Quran is almost the size of the Christian New Testament. It consists of 114 chapters called surahs. They are not arranged chronologically. They are arranged in order of length, from longest to shortest surah. Surah 13:38,39 We did send apostles before thee, and appointed for them wives and children: and it was never the part of an apostle to bring a sign except as Allah permitted (or commanded). For each period is a Book (revealed). Allah doth blot out or confirm what He pleaseth: with Him is the Mother of the Book. God is the sole author. Most Muslims do not believe any human authorship or editing took place in the formation of the Quran. The Quran is to be handled reverently (It shouldn t be left on the floor, covered with papers, or be written it) Arabic is thought to be the sacred language so Muslims, regardless of their national language, memorize, recite and pray the Quran in Arabic even if they do not fully understand it. Memorizing the entire Quran is a traditional act of Piety. The recitation of the Quran, an important part of Islamic worship, has been elevated to an art form over the centuries.
People of the Book Muslims believe to be descended from Abraham through his son Ishmael. Islam proclaims its continuity with Jewish and Christian religion. Muslims believe that only Islam has the final and authoritative revelation from God. Jews and Christians however, as people of the book are granted many rights under Islamic law. The Quran teaches that so long as they do not oppose Islam they will be judged and rewarded by God. Surah 2:62 Those who believe (in the Qur'an), and those who follow the Jewish (scriptures), and the Christians and the Sabians,- any who believe in Allah and the Last Day, and work righteousness, shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve. The Quran teaches that God s revelation came first to the Jews and then to Christians. Surah 2:136 Say ye: "We believe in Allah, and the revelation given to us, and to Abraham, Isma'il, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes, and that given to Moses and Jesus, and that given to (all) prophets from their Lord: We make no difference between one and another of them: And we bow to Allah (in Islam)." The Quran states that Jews and Christians had distorted the original revelation of God. To the Muslim Jewish and Christian holy texts are a mix of divine revelation and human fabrication. The Quran has great esteem for Jesus and affirms both his virgin birth and messianic status but believes Christian claims to his divinity (including doctrines such as the trinity are violations of Gods oneness).
Surah 9:30-31 The Jews call 'Uzair a son of Allah, and the Christians call Christ the son of Allah. That is a saying from their mouth; (in this) they but imitate what the unbelievers of old used to say. Allahs curse be on them: how they are deluded away from the Truth! They take their priests and their anchorites to be their lords in derogation of Allah, and (they take as their Lord) Christ the son of Mary; yet they were commanded to worship but One Allah. there is no god but He. Praise and glory to Him: (Far is He) from having the partners they associate (with Him). The Five Pillars of Islam Islam is as diverse as any other religion. Islam leads itself to many different interpretations and has divided into various sects. Despite various sectarian differences all Muslims are united in their reverence for Allah, the Quran and the Prophet. Also uniting all Muslims is observance of the Five Pillars of Islam. Interpretation may differ but for all Muslims the Five Pillars are obligatory. 1. Profession of Faith There is no god but God and Muhammad is the messenger of God. This statement is known as the Shahadah which means witness or testimony. A person s entry into Islam begins with a sincere recitation of this profession. The profession is also repeated during worship and prayer. The statement summarizes Islamic orthodoxy Absolute monotheism and affirmation of Muhammad s status as prophet. 2. Daily Prayer or Salat Muslims are to pray five times a day (dawn, noon, midafternoon, sunset, and evening) Muslims pray facing Mecca and pray in Arabic, regardless of their national language.
Many cities in the Islamic world, the call to prayer will issue from the tower of the mosque. God is Most Great, God is Most Great! I witness that there is no God but God I Witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of God Come to prayer come to salvation God is Most Great! God is Most Great! There is no god but God! The noon prayer on Fridays is a special congregational prayer that usually takes place in a mosque (place of prostration). Friday prayers usually feature a sermon. 3. Almsgiving or the zakat Almsgiving is not a voluntary privilege, but a God-given duty in Islam. Those who have benefited from Gods generosity are required to look after the needs of the less fortunate. Zakat is a tax on all accumulated wealth and assets, not just ones income. Almsgiving generally goes to help the poor and disadvantaged or to other charities. 4. The Fast of Ramadan Once a year all healthy Muslims are required to abstain from food, drink, and sex from dawn to dusk. The fast is broken at the end of the day by a meal (referred to as breakfast.) This is a time for families. The month of Ramadan comes to an end with a great celebration, the Feast of the Breaking of the Fast, Id al-fitr. Families visit one another and exchange gifts during a three day long celebration.
5. Pilgrimage to Mecca or the Hajj. Every adult Muslim who is physically and financially able is to pilgrimage to Mecca at lest once in his lifetime. Muslims wear white garments to symbolize purity. Jewelry and perfume or any marks of wealth or class are prohibited. This is to express that all believers are equal before God. Pilgrims visit Mecca s grand Mosque, where the Kaaba is located. They then circle round the Kaaba seven times imitating the motions of angles around God s throne in heaven. Muslims believe that Abraham and his son Ismail built the Kaaba to honor God. The Kaaba contains a black stone that was given to Abraham by the angel Gabriel to symbolize God s covenant with Ismail. While on pilgrimage many Muslims also visit the Plain of Arafat where Muhammad preached his last sermon. There Muslims pray for forgiveness for themselves and the world. Muhammad s Early Ministry Like other prophets Muhammad s ministry was initially met with resistance and the first Muslims with persecution. Muhammad denounced polytheism and the endless tribal conflicts it propagated. Instead God had intended a universal community of believers. He argued against the social inequities of his age and called for compassion towards the poor, orphans and widows. Muhammad spoke with the authority of a Prophet which challenged the ruling classes of his time. As Islam grew in converts, it was faced with violent persecution. Then the Quraysh showed their enmity to all who followed the Apostle; every clan which contained Muslims attacked them [the Muslims], beating them, allow them no food or drink, exposing them to the burning heat of Mecca, so as to seduce them from their religion. Some gave way under pressure of persecution, and others rested them, being protected by God.
--Ibn Ishaq Fleeing the persecution Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina in 622. This event called the Hirja or emigration is seen as turning point in Islamic history. Muhammad the Statesman For a decade Muhammad was both the spiritual and political leader of Medina. During this time he continued to receive revelations and further articulated submission (Islam) as not just a personal commitment to God but as a obligation of the community. Eventually Muhammad called for all the tribes of Arabia to submit to Allah and his Prophet. In 624 Muhammad led his armies against the Meccans. Severely outnumbered, the Quran attributes their victory God s intervention. Muhammad s final victory against the Meccans ended without a fight. Instead of punishing the Meccans Muhammad offered amnesty. Most Meccans converted to Islam. At the age of 62 Muhammad led a pilgrimage to Mecca where he delivered his final sermon. The Constitution of Medina set out the rights and duties of citizens in Muslim communities. Notable about the constitution is the provisions it makes for other religions. Jews, who at one time composed nearly half the population of Medina were allowed to practice their religion freely so long as they remained loyal politically. Growth and expansion of Islam After the Prophets death, Islam saw a period of rapid growth and expansion. Muslim armies conquered much of the eastern Roman and Persian empires. Muslim rule eventually extended throughout the middle-east and north Africa creating an empire that, at its peak, was greater than Rome. The Islamic civilization it introduced flourished from the 9 th to 12 th centauries. In many areas where the inhabitants had shared cultural and linguistic affinities with Arabs, Islam was preferred to their former rulers. Also many Christians and Jews found Islam to be more tolerant than imperial Christianity.
Jews and even local Christian churches were persecuted as heretics by foreign Christian orthodoxies. The protected status of people of the book allowed many Jews and Christians greater freedoms than before. During this time Islamic civilization experience a sort of early Renaissance. Writings of Greek philosophers and other great works from east and west were translated into Arabic. Major contributions to philosophy, medicine, mathematics and astronomy followed. The Origins of the Shiite and Sunni Split In the decades after the death of Muhammad a disagreement arose over who would become the caliph the political and religious successor of Muhammad. One side argued that only direct descendants of the Prophet should be allowed this honor. The shiat-ali or partisans of Ali believed the prophet s cousin and son-in-law Ali, should be named caliph. Later this sect would be known simply as Shiites. The other side of the argument believed that any worthy man could be caliph regardless of their lineage. They believed Abu Bakar was the rightful Caliph. They were later called Sunni from the Arab word for followers In 680 the Shiites staged a rebellion, led by Ali s son Husayn. His army was slaughtered outside the city of Karbala by the armies of a Sunni caliph. Beginning with the martyrdom of Husayn, Shiite worldview emphasized their suffering, and oppression which was reinforced by their status as minorities in the Muslim world. Today Shiites compose around 15% of the Islamic community world wide. Differences between Shiite and Sunni Muslims The differences between Sunni and Shiite Muslims pale in comparison to their similarities. Both sides believe in one God, Allah and in the prophet Muhammad. Both sides make the recitation of the Quran and observance of the five pillars of Islam the core practices of their faith. Many Muslims today, tired of sectarian feuds, refuse to identify themselves as Sunni or Shiite, insisting that they are Muslims only. There are however some differences deserving of attention.
Shiite Muslims have a more centralized and hierarchal clergy this stems from their veneration for the holy family (descendants of Muhammad). Sunni Islam is less centralized. Consciousness of their history of defeat and subjugation by other Muslims, Shiites place more of an emphasis on sacrifice and Martyrdom. Shiite Islam has a strong messianic component. They believe there were 12 legitimate successors to Muhammad the final one called Mahdi ascended to heaven. Shiites believe Mahdi will one day return as a savior to their people. At the end of the world an epic battle between good and evil will precede a thousand year reign of peace Islamic Law From the seventh to the tenth centuries, Muslim scholars in the major centers of Islamic civilization attempted to articulate a systematic and compressive guide to all areas of living. The product of their efforts is called Shariah, which literally means the right or straight path. Shariah law is used by Muslims to inform not only their personal way of life but the structure and laws of Islamic societies. In addition to the Quran, Islamic law was modeled after the Hadith: a collection of stories and reports of what the Prophet did and said during his lifetime. The ulama are a class of religious scholars who were in charge of administering and applying Islamic law. Muslim Family Law and the role of Women in Islam Family is of great importance to Muslim societies. Throughout Islamic history significant portions of Islamic law were neither implemented nor enforced. Sometimes these laws were still held forth as ideals which one should strive for, other times they were carefully circumvented by caliphs and sultans wishing to avoid their implications. Islamic family law, however, was always enforced. Even today in many Muslim states that are westernizing their legal systems, family law remains enforced. In countries where it has been reformed or replaced, movements have arisen which push for a return to family law. Though in many cases family law reflects the male-dominated societies in which Islam evolved, It is important to note
that the Quran made several reforms which significantly improved the status of women (at that time) in the Arabian world and beyond. Role of Women The Quran teaches that in the eyes of God, men and women are equal. They have the same religious and moral obligations and rewards. Surah 33:35 For Muslim men and women,- for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in Charity, for men and women who fast (and deny themselves), for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in Allah s praise,- for them has Allah prepared forgiveness and great reward. Men and Women are thought to play different roles in society. Men function in the public sphere (financial support and protection for the family); Women are to manage the household (raising children, watching after children s moral and spiritual education). Because of men s greater experience and broader responsibility, wives are to be subordinate to husbands. Surah 2:228 And women shall have rights similar to the rights against them, according to what is equitable; but men have a degree (of advantage) over them. And Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise. Marriage Marriage is viewed as a civil contract marriage is much more than an agreement between two people; it is between two families. Arranged marriages are common though women are not to be forced against their will.
Though divorce is permitted it is considered reprehensible. A man can divorce by declaring his intention to do so. This is followed by a three month waiting before the final divorce can take place. A woman can initiate divorce through the courts if she has legal grounds (abuse, abandonment, failure to provide, etc.) Polygamy The Quran permits men the right to marry up to four wives. This was a restriction at that time. The Quran specifies that if each wife could not be supported and treated equally, a man should only have one wife. Islamic modernists stress that the true ideal in the Quran is monogamy. And other verses demonstrate that no one can truly treat multiple wives equally. Surah 4:129 You are never able to be fair and just between women if that is your ardent desire The Veil and Seclusion In many Muslim societies women are required to wear a veil or head covering when in public or amongst people who are not immediate family. In some Muslim societies women are also required to live in seclusion, never leaving the home without being accompanied by a man. Both these customs were adopted from Persian and Byzantine empires and are not specified in the Quran. Muslims disagree as to whether or not these practices are consistent with the Quran s teaching. Modernist Muslims wish to reform the role of women in Islam. The challenges they face and the arguments they make are not that different from their Jewish and Christian counterparts who argue against gender inequality. Modernist Muslims maintain that one should make a distinction between the message of the Quran and the cultural context in which it arose. In
doing so they recognize revelation as dynamic something that can transform and should be reinterpreted over time. Conservative and fundamentalist Muslims believe the Quran to be perfect for all times and places they strive for a full return to premodern views on the role of women. Islam s response to modernism. During the nineteenth century many Muslim societies fell victim to European imperialism. Muslim societies throughout North Africa, the middle east and south Asia became European colonies. As European armies and Christian missionaries became more prevalent in Muslim lands, many Muslims struggled to understand how to respond to this new situation. As is the case with all religious responses to modernism and colonialism, Islam produced a variety of responses that ranged from total accommodation to violent resistance. 1. Secular modernism Secular modernists tried to closely emulate the west. They insisted that their societies should not return to the Islamic past but should aggressively pursue secular reform. They argued that Islam and politics could be separated and insisted upon the privatization of religion 2. Islamic modernism Islamic modernists rejected what they believed was the uncritical acceptance of westernization promoted by secular moderates. They did believe that some aspects of modernization were compatible with Islam and they worked towards educational, religious and social reforms. Believing Islam knows no clergy modernists challenged the authority of the ulama (religious scholars) to dictate truth. They insisted that educated laymen could interpret the Quran for themselves. 3. Revivalist movements
Following an ages old tradition in Islam, Revivalists believed that when Islamic societies strayed from God s path they would face hardships. The social conflict introduced by Western colonialism was interpreted as a call for Muslims to return to the true faith. Revivalists called for a rejection of foreign ideas such as secular, materialist ideologies of the west. Revivalists sought to return to a literal interpretation of the Quran and reinstate a strictly interpreted Islamic law. Radical Islam Modern radical Islamic movements can trace their development to intellectual movements of the early to middle 20 th centaury. In the minds of some Muslims, so called Muslim societies had become corrupted by westernization. The Muslim world had become overrun by repressive anti-islamic governments. In their view Islam was on the verge of collapse. Muslim elites and government officials were atheists, enemies of God. Gradual internal transformation could be relied upon. The only solution was holy war. Radicals insisted that the implementation of an Islamic system of government was a divine commandment, not one of many alternatives. Radicals believed themselves to be a minority of true Muslims they admitted no middle ground between what they called the party of Satan and the party of God (i.e. those committed to establishing the rule of God and those committed to destroying the rule of God; fundamentalists and moderates) It was the true Muslim s duty to wage holy war (Jihad) against the enemies of God. The meaning of Jihad Jihad is sometimes referred to as the sixth pillar of Islam. Jihad means to strive or struggle. Radical Islam and terrorist groups have adopted the term to describe their ideology of violence. Although some historical examples of Jihad did include holy war, Jihad has a much deeper meaning for most Muslims that in no way advocates violence. Jihad is exerting oneself to realize Gods will. Jihad is usually understood as the struggle to be a better Muslim in ones personal life and community. Today, a believers Jihad might be to keep the fast of Ramadan. One could see their Jihad as the struggle establish good schools, or fight against drugs and
poverty. The message of Jihad is that doing the will of God is not always easy. Following the example of the Prophet is a challenge it takes diligence and dedication. Islam in the West Muslims living in the west face many unique challenges. Not only do Muslims face cultural stereotypes that have persisted over centuries, in a post September 11 th world Muslims must contend with media portrayals that fail to make adequate distinctions between the views of a majority of Muslims and those of radical Islam. There are more than 18 million Muslims living in Europe and around 4-6 million Muslims in America. Muslims in Europe and America face many of the same challenges concerning religious adherence and social tolerance: 1. The ability to take time off of work and school for prayer, Friday mosque attendance and Muslim holidays Many American Muslims have tried to deal with this problem by switching the traditional Friday prayer to Sundays. 2. Muslims attempting to follow Islamic dietary laws have fought to have special (halal) foods available in schools and in the military. 3. For women, if they choose, to be able to wear a headscarf without encountering discrimination. Some countries such as France have actively tried to restrict the wearing of headscarves in public schools on the grounds of church/state separation and promoting assimilation. 4. Some Muslims, especially immigrants, struggle more generally with the idea of living in a non-islamic state. Islamic traditions encourage Muslims to migrate from non-muslim areas to Islamic nations so as to avoid contributing to the strength and prosperity of non-muslim countries. Muslims in western countries are actively developing institutions that try to fulfill the needs that are met by Islamic law in Muslim countries.