THE ORGANISATION OF ISLAMIC COOPERATION The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) (formerly Organization of the Islamic Conference) is the second largest inter-governmental organization after the United Nations [and] has membership of 57 states spread over four continents (http://www.oicoci.org/member_states.asp). The Organisation is the collective voice of the Muslim world and ensuring to safeguard and protect the interests of the Muslim world in the spirit of promoting international peace and harmony among various people of the world..wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/oic_member_states.png Rights of Religious Minorities in Islamic-Majority Countries with a focus on Nigeria and Mali as examples Introduction The OIC is charged with promoting cooperation among its member-states with the goal of safeguarding the interests of the Muslim world. Part and parcel of the Muslim world are those people who do not identify as Muslims, who do not participate in Muslim worship, and who do not share the religious and political principles associated with various interpretations of Islam. And yet the sovereign states in which those persons live have an obligation to protect the physical safety and human rights of their citizens, regardless of their faith or religious identity. Specifically, member-states of the OIC owe it to their non-muslim citizens and residents the same protections they afford to their Muslim citizens and residents.
The situation extends beyond non-muslim minorities to sectarian Muslim minorities in countries where the majority population is a different Islamic sect than the minority (for example, Sunni Muslims in Iran, which is predominantly Shia, or Shia Muslims in Saudi Arabia, which is predominantly Sunni). In these sorts of situations and most Muslim-majority states have either non-muslim minorities, sectarian Muslim minorities, or both how should OIC member-states handle the challenge of protecting the safety, well-being, and human rights of these religious minorities? Although we are reluctant to point fingers, we need to discuss in frank terms where these minorities live, the best practices for protecting them, and the sorts of violations of rights and failures to protect non-muslim or Muslim sectarian minorities. This guide mentions Nigeria and Mali, among other countries, but it is important to recognize that this is a challenge that confronts nearly every member-state of the OIC within its own borders, and it is an issue that confronts the entire Ummah, or transnational community of Muslims comprising (but not limited to) the OIC countries. Background Ideally, human rights are respected and protected by every state, which in turn helps to ensure that state s stability and security. Yet when citizens endowed privileges, including the right to religious freedom, are violated or oppressed by a governing body or competing armed group within the territory of a state, it is destructive. Despite Nigeria s and Mali s acceptance of the UN Declaration of Human Rights and its Covenants, discrimination and abuse of the minority rights are abundant. In 2006, Special Rapporteur Asma Jahangir reported on the status and treatment of religion in Nigeria. There were great signs of religious abuse and intolerance, especially in the northern region. In 2009, crimes against religious minorities doubled with the killing of innocents conducted by the Islamist jihadist militant group, Boko Haram. Mali s reputation for human rights protection has also been called into question. Emerging from a dictatorial government in 1999, Mali quickly ratified UN Covenants and promised to uphold human rights. Yet, high political tension still exists between the Christian and Muslim communities of Mali, which eventually led to a coup d état in March 2012 and the immediate weakening of the Malian state government. As a result, thousands of Christians, opposing Muslims, and innocent civilians were killed, jailed, and discriminated against, particularly under the imposition of Sharia law by Islamic militants and by government soldiers brutality. Below we provide additional information about the rights of religious minorities, and prompt the OIC to consider this issue in its deliberations and possibly as the main subject of a resolution.
Canisius College What is the Significance of Minority Rights? The Universal Declaration of Human Rights presents the important ideal that every UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay human being is equally entitled to fair treatment and a host of rights, including those related to freedom of religious worship and practice. Therefore, groups of individuals who make up a smaller proportion of a religious, racial, or ethnic population (or a minority) should be treated with the same respect as a majority by the state and under the law. UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay states that, Everyone should enjoy all human rights. No one should be excluded. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. Non-discrimination must prevail. 1 The High Commissioner s words carry a great deal of weight, and we should pay close attention to the details of her statement. First, everyone should enjoy all human rights that includes members of minority groups, including faith-based identity groups that do not have adequate political representation in government and those who worship in a way considered to be foolish or wrongheaded by the majority. Second, non-discrimination must prevail governments must respect and protect the rights of all people, in the majority and in minorities, without favoritism, without policies that offer special treatment for any group. With respect to religious faith and worship, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is very specific: From the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Article 18. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance. http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/ Regardless of this belief in universal human rights, discrimination still occurs against religious minorities, especially in weakened democratic states, such as Nigeria and Mali; in transitioning
countries like Egypt, where Coptic Christians make up a little less than ten percent of the population and are often scapegoated, intimidated, and become the targets of violence; and in many other countries in Africa and around the globe. Protection via the UN Universal Declaration and the African Charter The protection of religious minorities is not unique to Africa or any other region, but North Africa and East Africa and the Horn of Africa have emerged as global hotspots for violations of the rights of religious minorities. Egypt, Somalia, and Sudan, as well as Mali and Nigeria, stand out as deserving of attention. Although many of these countries achieved their independence during a time in which the international community was concerned with the protection of minorities, these countries records of success in this area are mixed at best. The 1960 s and 1970 s served as the social revolutionary years of many UN member states in Latin America, Africa, and the Americas. 1 Many of the UN social and political covenants asserting and protecting minority rights were concluded during that time. In addition, former British and French colonies (primarily in West Africa) began to assert their independence and demand a new way of living. Both the International Covenant on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1969) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1976) became the foundations for the protection of religious and political freedoms as well as for future anti-discrimination laws. Nigeria in 1983 and Mali in 1981 signed and ratified these covenants into their national law via the African Charter. 2 Regional efforts to protect the physical safety and human rights of minorities abound, but do not necessarily guarantee the actual protection of religious minorities. The Organization of African Unity (OAU) reinforced the UN Declaration by creating a bill of human rights for Africa known as the African Charter of Human and People s Rights (1981). 3 This Charter not only promoted the existence and protection of human rights, but it also established two powerful institutions: the African Commission (1987) and the African Human Rights Court (1998). 4 As signatories of the Charter, Mali and Nigeria pledged to report all their human rights and stateconditions to the African Commission (which keep record of member states progress with human rights) and were subjected to the trials and punishments sentenced by a human rights court (the enforcers of Charter). However, in early 2000 s, when Mali and Nigeria were 1 Timeline of United Nations Human Rights Conventions. Al- Jazeera. Website. Accessed on 10 September 2013. http://www.aljazeera.com/focus/humanrightsun/2008/12/20081278493266190.htmltable 11.1. 2 African Charter on Human and People s Rights. Website. Accessed on 11 September 2013. http://www.achpr.org/instruments/achpr/ 3 Ibid. African Charter on Human and People s Rights. Website. 4 African Charter on Human and People s Rights. Website. Accessed on 11 September 2013. http://www.achpr.org/instruments/achpr/
overwhelmed by outsiders and terrorist groups, their human rights reports became inconsistent or incomplete. Here the situations in Nigeria and Mali as we now understand them are reported for the OIC s consideration. The OIC is also invited to consider other member-states records with regard to the protection of the rights of religious minorities, both for the sake of identifying and discussing violations, and in search of best practices to be used as models for new resolutions and frameworks for the protection of religious minorities rights going forward. However, in the interest of preserving the unity of the Ummah and the continued functioning of the OIC as an organization, we encourage critical debate solely in the interest of moving toward the establishment of standards for OIC countries to observe, and not toward the condemnation or punishment of member-states alleged to be in violation of the expectation that religious minorities will be protected. The OIC needs to move forward together as a united community of like-minded countries with shared interests, not to disintegrate because of mutual finger-pointing and recrimination. Rights of Religious Minorities in Nigeria Religious Population The Pew Forum (2011) states that the Muslim population of Nigeria comprised 47.9% of the population in 2010 and predicts that it will constitute a numerical majority of over 50% by 2020. 5 Other sources state that the Muslim population is already 50 percent of the population (see figure below). Christianity is also prevalent in Nigeria, representing almost 40% of the population. 6 The Nigerian government faces a serious challenge in trying to ensure equal treatment of Muslims and Christians as well as individuals of other religious affiliations. The situation is exacerbated because of tensions between Islam and Christianity that are associated with humanitarian problems and political violence. 5 Pew Research religion and Public Life Project. Interactive Map on the Future of Global Muslim Population. Mali. Accessed on 11 September 2013. http://features.pewforum.org/muslim- population- graphic/#/mali 6 Central Intelligence Agency. CIA World Fact book. Nigeria. Religion Population. Accessed on 11 September 2013. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- world- factbook/geos/ni.html
Political Framework and Laws toward Religion in Nigeria In 2006, the UN Special Rapporteur visited Nigeria to record its progress on human rights protections, and in particular its standards with religious freedom. The Rapporteur found that the Nigerian Constitution of 1999 held specific articles guaranteeing freedoms of religious practice and expression, such as the equality among sacred groups to promote religious private education, the right to choose or change religious status, the prohibition of religious cults or secret societies, and the prohibition of a state religion. 7 Moreover, government officials work to protect all religious groups, and prevent the creation of cults especially in public universities, where such groups tend to encourage senseless violence or killing. 8 The Nigerian government also limits public religious events or ceremonies by authority figures for fear of provoking or worsening inter-religious tensions, but regular citizens are free to celebrate or express themselves, with a sense of modesty. 9 Unlike in most democracies, the systems of state and religion depend on one another. For instance, the Nigerian government subsidizes Christian and Muslim pilgrimages as a public service; it also uses public funds to build places of worship and appoints government representatives based on their religious background. 10 Despite the respect and support of religious freedom enforced by current President Goodluck Jonathan, violations do occur, both by outside actors (i.e., terrorists or militants) and government authorities or groups (i.e., state military or police). President Goodluck Jonathan of Nigeria Crises in Nigeria---Boko Haram Since 2001 in Northeast Nigeria an Islamist jihadist militant terrorist group Boko Haram has established itself as a force to be reckoned with. Human Rights Watch has been monitoring the progression of the militant group and its radical movement in Nigeria since 2009. According to their reports, Boko Haram was responsible for the deaths of over 1,000 people by July 2009, including Christians as well as Muslim clergymen who rebelled against them. 11 While fighting against the state military, Four Things You Need to Know about Nigeria s Boko Haram (from Time magazine) http://world.time.com/2013/09/30/four-things-you-need-to-know-aboutnigerias-boko-haram/ or http://tinyurl.com/ktu3pnm The Rise of Nigeria s Boko Haram (from Al Jazeera) http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/09/201397155225146644.html 7 Jahangir, Asma. Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 5. (Feb 10 Mar 2005). http://daccess- dds ny.un.org/doc/undoc/gen/g05/160/41/pdf/g0516041.pdf?openelement 8 Jahangir, Asma, page 8 9 Ibid, page 5. 10 Ibid, page 9. 11 Human Rights Watch: Nigeria. Country Summary (Jan 2013). Accessed on 11 September
the Islamist group bombed several churches in the northeast. 12 In 2012, their terrorist activity increased dramatically and included the alleged commission of numerous war crimes, including the use and recruitment of child soldiers, looting and the pillaging of hospitals, schools, aid agencies and government buildings. 13 By late 2012, the violence, which first erupted in 2009, had claimed more than 2,800 lives. 14 Unfortunately for government officials, soldiers and military officers have also harmed or detained innocents in their reckless pursuit of terrorists or rebels during this gruesome war. Human Rights Watch asserts that in order to combat the tyranny of Boko Haram, Nigerian security government agents: killed hundreds of suspected members of the group or residents of communities [in the north, where the Christianity minority resided.] [They] also arrested hundreds of people during raids across the north [and] detained many of them without charge, trial, or in inhuman conditions; some were physically abused; others disappeared or died in detention. 15 The problem in Nigeria is not unique: a radicalized extremist group trying to impose its views, intimidating moderate co-religionists and committing acts of violence against a religious minority of a different faith. Nor is the government of Nigeria alone in experiencing difficulties in providing safety and physical security to the minority group, either by failing to protect them adequately or by using heavy-handed methods to combat the extremists (in this case, both). Here and elsewhere, governments need help finding a balance between protecting minorities and stopping short of persecuting members of the majority. Mali Unlike Nigeria, the balance between Muslims and Christians is heavily tilted toward Muslims. In fact, Mali has one of the largest Muslim populations in West Africa. Out of the approximately 15.9 million citizens, 94.8 percent practiced Islam (mostly Sunni) and 2.4 percent are Christian. 16 The rest consist of those who hold indigenous beliefs, which are widely practiced throughout Mali as a cultural norm. 17 Before the military coup of Tuareg rebels in 2012, Mali s promotion and protection of religious freedom 2013. http://www.hrw.org/africa/nigeria 12 BBC News. Nigeria's Boko Haram 'bombed Kaduna churches'. (June 18 2012). Accessed on 11 September 2013. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world- africa- 18496285 13 Human Rights Watch. UN Human Rights Council: Deterioration in Mali; Widespread and Systematic Violations in Eritrea Oral Statement under Item 2. 18 June 2012. 14 Human Rights Watch: Nigeria. http://www.hrw.org/reports/2012/10/11/spiraling- violence- 0, Accessed on 30 September 2013. 15 Human Rights Watch: Nigeria. Country Summary (Jan 2013). Accessed on 11 September 2013. http://www.hrw.org/africa/nigeria 16 Central Intelligence Agency. CIA World Fact Book. Notes on Mali. Accessed on September 11, 2013 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- world- factbook/geos/ml.html 17 U.S. State Department. Mali: 2012 International Religion Freedom Report. Accessed on 13 September 2013.
generally conformed to UN standards. Mali s Government Upholds Freedom of Religion and Expression While politically stable, the Malian government maintained a peaceful environment for all religions and allowed people of any faith-system to express their beliefs in public, as long as there were no attacks of other religions or appraisals of their religion. 18 Religious events in public were encouraged to be modest and simple. Both Muslims and Christians were given a voice in government decisions through the Malian High Council of Islam and the Committee of Wise Men. 19 Most importantly, the state government also permitted private religious education for Muslims and Christians. Under the Malian secular government, Christians rights were respected. 20 Yet with the incursion by the Islamic group Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) who took over the military coup from the Tuareg rebels, minority rights were no longer sacred or protected. Crisis in Mali -- AQIM (Al-Qaeda affiliate, 2002-2012) Since March 2012, Northern Mali has been mangled by the violent activities and brutal laws of the Tuareg militant rebels and Islamist AQIM members. It was reported that the: Populations in the north of Mali are already suffering violations from combatants on all sides: armed Islamist groups have enforced their interpretation of Sharia law through beatings, amputations, killings, and the destruction of religious landmarks. Separatist Tuareg rebels were responsible for numerous cases of sexual abuse and widespread pillage All warring factions in the north have committed extrajudicial killings, arbitrary arrests, and looting, and have recruited and used child soldiers. 21 As a consequence, the democratic system of Mali became weak and was in need of UN intervention to stop Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb from causing a reign of terror and minority oppression. With constant accusations and reports of human rights violations by Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch in December 2012, the UN Security Council began to pay attention to the situation in Mali. 22 Along with an intervention led by France (see topic guide on the situation in Mali), a UN mission was made official by UN Secretary-General Ban-Ki 18 Ibid, page 2 19 Ibid, page 2 20 Ibid, 2. 21 FIDH: Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect. Crisis in Mali. Open Letter to the Members of the UN National Security Council. 22 FIDH, Open Letter.
Moon and established by the Security Council on 25 April 2013. 23 Military and economic support was sent to the military coalition of Malian and French armies and soon after the AQIM and rebel military forces were defeated and thought to be expelled from Mali. Now that the Tuareg rebels and AQIM are cast out of the northeast, stability is returning to Mali slowly with a recently issued democratic government back in place and a newly elected president, Ibrahim Boubacar Keita, in office as of July 31, 2013. 24 In only a few months, the UN mission, MINUSMA, has succeeded and has helped Mali achieve great progress in regaining its political stability. President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita held his inauguration on September 6, 2013. 25 A residual issue that is unique neither to Mali nor to Nigeria is how to protect the rights of religious minorities? This is an especially pressing issue in Muslim-majority countries like those in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. The Ummah is an inclusive community of Muslims, and allows for fundamentalists and moderates to stand shoulder-to-shoulder under the same big tent. But just because government officials may be reluctant to take action against their co-religionists does not give governments a good reason to look the other way when extremists intimidate minority groups, use violence against religious minorities, or make it difficult for minorities to practice their faith. Imposition of Sharia law by non-state actors and groups must not be tolerated by governments, and governments must protect not only their own authority but also the safety, rights, and freedom to worship of members of religious minority groups. The situation is particularly pressing in countries where radicalized groups similar to AQIM or Boko Haram attempt to impose Sharia law and exercise systematic discrimination against non-muslims. The OIC is charged with the task of discussing this issue and possibly working toward a resolution by which UN member-states would be pressured to reaffirm or improve their commitments to the protection of the rights of religious minorities. The challenge is also not limited to Islamic fundamentalists seeking to impose Sharia law; in other situations, members of religious minorities may be scapegoated or discriminated against in other ways. Coptic Christians in Egypt have been targets of recent political violence, as Amnesty International and many news outlets have reported. 26 Similar issues have arisen in Pakistan, Malaysia and Indonesia, among other OIC member-states. Watch this 10-minute video from PBS NewsHour for a discussion among experts about the challenge of protecting of Coptic Christians in Egypt and Christians in other Muslim-majority countries: http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/world/july-dec13/coptic_09-20.html 23 United Nations. MINUSMA. Stabilization of Mali. Peacekeeping Profile. Accessed on 13 September 2013. http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/minusma/background.shtml 24 Reuters. News. Mali's new president names first post- rebellion cabinet. 8 September 2013. http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/09/08/us- mali- government- idusbre9870da20130908 25 UN News Centre. UN peacekeeping mission in Mali notes formation of new Government. 6 September 2013. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?newsid=45789&cr=+mali+&cr1=#.ujpgnj81ap8 26 Amnesty International. Egypt: Christians scapegoated after dispersal of pro- Morsi sit- ins, 9 October 2013. http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/egypt- christians- scapegoated- after- dispersal- pro- morsi- sit- ins- 2013-10- 09
The major sectarian divide in Islam between Sunni and Shia also plays out in some Muslim-majority countries where one sect dominates the population and the other constitutes a minority. For example, Saudi Arabia has a Sunni majority population and has been accused of intolerance of Shia Muslims. A final challenge is the perception that the OIC has ignored, minimized, or covered up religious discrimination and persecution. A strongly worded opinion article in the conservative Washington Times last year made the point: Countries that persecute, restrict or oppress religious minorities often pressure people to recant their faith, deny them the right to worship publicly and to erect houses of worship, and discriminate against them in education, housing and employment. More egregious abuses include torture, flogging, financial fines, imprisonment and even execution. Approximately 50 percent of the worldʼs population lives under religiously oppressive regimes. Virtually all of the member states of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the largest Islamic organization in the world, are among them. The OIC is comprised of 56 United Nations member states plus the Palestinian Authority. Though it claims to be a moderate organization, it fights to promote its skewed views, consisting of Islamic values which are in contradiction to the values of equality, plurality and freedom of speech or religion (except for the practice of state-sanctioned interpretations of Islam). Numerous OIC members, including Saudi Arabia and Iran, are among the worldʼs greatest enemies of religious freedom. But even moderate or secular Islamic countries who belong to the Organization of Islamic Cooperation engage in some form of religious persecution, whether penalties for apostasy, blasphemy laws or the denial of the rights of religious minorities to practice their faiths openly. Read more: http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/jul/5/sweeping-religious-persecution-under-the-rug/#ixzz2hhgdcvvt To be a respected and trusted player in the international community, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation needs to confront this damaging reputation and, more importantly, to examine the issues associated with religious minorities and their rights and protection. The OIC needs to identify best practices, and to strongly recommend to all OIC member-states to observe these best practices and implement safeguards that will allow minorities to observe their faith freely and without fear. To that end, we pose several questions for the member-state delegations in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation: What is the religious composition of the population in your country? Which religious minorities are present? What policies or laws are in place in your country to protect religious minority groups? Are these enforced regularly? Does your state s governance feature elements of Islam? Are there also features in place that help represent and protect the rights of religious minorities?
What has the OIC done in the past to encourage the protection of religious minorities, and to discourage religious discrimination, persecution, and violence? What can be done to provide security for non-muslims in Mali and Nigeria during times of conflict? Should member-states develop common mechanisms for the protection of religious minority communities during periods of violence or high risk of violence? What rights do non-muslims already have Nigeria and Mali? How are rights protected in legal and political terms? Are these sufficient, or should these states and others develop new mechanisms to promote the protection of rights of religious minorities? How can the tension be lessened between Muslim and Christian communities in Nigeria and in other UN member-states that have this particular combination of religious identities in their populations, like Egypt and others? Does the OIC need to develop a common policy on the protection of religious minorities and their rights? What would such a policy include? Suggested Resources Mapping the Global Muslim Population (Pew Research Religion& Public Life Project) http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/ Muslim-majority countries: Putting minority rights in context http://www.defence.pk/forums/world-affairs/59312-muslim-majority-countries-putting-minority-rights-context.html Experts Expose Realities of Religious Minorities in Muslim-Majority Countries During Forum http://www.mpac.org/issues/foreign-policy/experts-expose-realities-of-religious-minorities-in-muslim-majority-countries-duringforum.php#.ulyigmsifwo or http://tinyurl.com/leq2u6l Growing violence against minorities threatens future of Christians in Syria and across Muslim world http://www.arabamericannews.com/news/index.php?mod=article&cat=community&article=7560 Conference on Citizenship and the Rights of Minorities in Muslim-Majority Countries http://www.isna.net/isna-cosponsors-international-conference-on-citizenship-and-the-rights-of-minorities-in-muslim-majority-countries.html
Works Cited and Other Resources African Charter on Human and People s Rights. African Commission. Accessed on 10 September 2013. Website. http://www.achpr.org/instruments/achpr/ Amnesty International: Mali: Report 2013. Accessed on 12 September 2013. http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/countries/africa/mali BBC News. Nigeria's Boko Haram bombed Kaduna churches. (June 18 2012). Accessed on 11 September 2013. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18496285 Central Intelligence Agency. CIA World Fact Book. Notes on Mali. Accessed on September 11, 2013. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ml.html Central Intelligence Agency. CIA World Fact book. Nigeria. Religion Population. Accessed on 11 September 2013. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ni.html Timeline of United Nations Human Rights Conventions. Al-Jazeera. Website. Accessed on 10 September 2013. www.aljazeera.com/focus/humanrightsun/2008/12/20081278493266190.html FIDH: Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect. Crisis in Mali. Open Letter to the Members of the UN National Security Council. Accessed on 11 September 2013. http://www.fidh.org/open-letter-tothe-members-of-the-12555 Human Rights Watch. UN Human Rights Council: Deterioration in Mali; Widespread and Systematic Violations in Eritrea Oral Statement under Item 2. 18 June 2012. Accessed on September 2013. Human Rights Watch: Nigeria. Country Summary (Jan 2013). Accessed on 11 September 2013. http://www.hrw.org/africa/nigeria Jahangir, Asma. Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, 2006(Feb-Mar 2005). United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Accessed on 16 September 2013. Reuters. News. Mali's new president names first post-rebellion cabinet. 8 September 2013. http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/09/08/us-mali-government-idusbre9870da20130908 UN High Commissioner. Speech on Human Rights Day. December 2009. Accessed on 10 September 2012. Website. www.un.org/en/events/humanrightsday/2009/hc_statement.shtml United Nations. MINUSMA. Stabilization of Mali. Peacekeeping Profile. Accessed on 13 September 2013. www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/minusma/background.shtml UN News Centre. UN peacekeeping mission in Mali notes formation of new Government. (6 September 2013.) Accessed on 10 September 2013. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?newsid U.S. State Department. Mali: 2012 International Religion Freedom Report. Accessed on 13 September 2013. Walker, Andrew. What is Boko Haram? United States Institute of Peace. Special Report. 30 May 2012.