Logical Appeal (Logos) Relies on sound reasoning, facts, statistics Uses evidence well Analyzes cause-effect relationships Uses patterns of inductive and deductive reasoning Pitfall: failure to clearly distinguish between fact and opinion Pitfall: committing logical fallacies Logos Explained The first artistic or rhetorical proof is logos. Whereas ethos depends on the character of the speaker or writer and pathos on putting the audience into a certain frame of mind, logos is proving the case. The modern word, logic, the study of the principles of reasoning, comes from the Greek word logos. Classical rhetoricians and philosophers make a distinction, however, between logical and rhetorical proof. Logic has to do with universal and certain truths; rhetoric with probable truths. It is the same kind of distinction we often make today between the kind of truth demonstrated in a science laboratory and the kind of probable truth arrived at in a discussion of philosophy or history. Logical Reasoning There are generally two ways to approach an argument, by deduction and by induction. In deduction, the argument moves from a general statement to a particular instance; in induction, it moves from a particular instance to similar instances and then to a general truth. Rhetorical Reasoning
Description. In descriptions, writers tell their readers what they see or hear in a particular situation. They may describe a person, place, or an idea as they see it or experience. It is always a view from the writer s own perspective. In addition, effective descriptions rely on impressions about persons and places that come through one or more of the five senses taste, smell, sight, sound, and touch. Thus you, in turn, in describing an object may do so in terms of how it looks, smells, and tastes. Additionally, every object, scene or person can be viewed from different perspectives. So a chair viewed from the back is different when viewed from the front. A writer s skill is often evidenced in the ability to see something from a new and interesting angle and to transfer that particular insight to a reader. A good writer is one who can offer the reader a new outlook on the well known and familiar. Narration. The narratio for ancient rhetoricians was that part of the oration that stated the facts of the case in the precise order in which they occurred. In narratio classical rhetoric explored the event in much the same way that a modern journalist reports a news story. They were concerned with the elements of actor, action, time, place, cause manner, and starting point. Statistics. Statistics make up a special kind of evidence derived from numerical data and generally carry great weight in an argument. However, many times figures alone cannot convince, but they can be used effectively to support an assertion. You must exercise special care in using statistics by explaining terms, by giving reliable sources, and by relating the statistics to the point you are making. A statistic by itself means very little. When you use figures to support your arguments, you must use them with care in order convince the careful reader. Consider the following: the source of the figures, the date of the figures, the method by which the figures were gathered, and the percentage base. Authorities. In supporting an argument, writers lean heavily on the observations and opinions of other people. But before accepting other persons ideas, you will want to evaluate those observations and opinions, as well as the persons making them. Judgments depend on the ethos of the person and area special kind of opinion, arrived at by an authority on the basis of expert knowledge. It is important to distinguish between ordinary opinions and judgments made by an authority. Evaluate your authorities with the following questions: Is the person an authority in the field in which she or he is being cited as an authority? Is the authority biased or prejudiced? Is the authority being quoted out of context? Emotional Appeal (Pathos) Arouses and enlists the emotions of the reader
Elicits sympathy; appeals to fear, sadness, anger, joy, patriotism, etc. Often uses descriptions and examples to stir emotions Pitfall: failure to employ restraint, displaying excessive sentimentality Pathos Explained Pathos, according to Aristotle, is an important method of persuasion: Persuasion may come through the hearers, when the speech stirs their emotion. Our judgments when we are pleased and friendly are not the same as when we are pained and hostile (Rhetoric 1.11356a 13-16). As a writer you should write to a particular audience in a particular situation. In ordinary verbal exchanges, we are acutely aware of our audience; we constantly interact with our listeners. Good writing creates a similar interaction between the author and the readers. As writers, therefore, we must have an idea about what motivates and moves our readers. We must recognize and appeal to their hopes, their values, their fears, and their desires. We must anticipate their questions as well as their doubts, and we must respond to both in our writing. Rhetoric recognizes the whole person the rational as well as the emotional side of being human. The first and most obvious step is to identify and get acquainted with your readers. Knowing their values will help you choose ways for establishing your own integrity; knowing your reader s hopes and fears will help you recognize and acknowledge them in a sympathetic way. Determine who your audience is and consider which of these questions is relevant given your subject. Is the audience male or female, or a combo of both? What is their age? Are they married, single, divorced, or widowed? What nationality are they? Do they belong to a particular ethnic group? What is their political and religious affiliation? What is their educational background? Once you have thought about the answers to these questions, ask yourself the following questions: What information does my audience have about my subject? What information do I need to give them? What interest do they have in my subject? How can I interest them in my subject? What values do we share? On what do we agree? What might be our points of disagreement? What are their hopes and goals?
What do they fear? How can I remind the audience of our common beliefs and values? How can I make clear the connection between those shared beliefs and values and the subject of this paper/speech? What background information do my readers need? What specialized technical terms need defining? What do I want my audience to know, feel, or do after they read what I have written? Ethical Appeal (Ethos) 2 References 1. Refers to credibility of writer or speaker Credibility is gained if writer or speaker: Uses correct facts Avoids distorting evidence Accurately interprets events Avoids stating opinions as facts Does not make unsupported claims 2. Refers also to morality, a sense of right and wrong based on people s values and beliefs Ethos Explained In writing, the strength of the argument rests to a great degree on the credibility that the author establishes. The author s good character adds weight to the words, provides support for the statements, and lends proof to the arguments. Establishing this character depends, in turn, on words, examples, statements, and arguments that the writer offers. In orations, speakers literally and physically stand behind what they say, but in writing, the author may be physically separated from the reader. In conversations, there is constant interaction questions and interruptions between the speaker and hearer. In writing, the reader usually cannot question the author. We read letters from friends who are thousands of miles away and all we have in this case are the words on the page. But through their writings, these persons are very real and very much present. Through the words on the page, writers, establish who they are and what they believe. Authors can establish their credibility by demonstrating three qualities through the words on the page: intelligence, virtue, and goodwill. Intelligence can be indicated by experience or special knowledge of the subject, although the best evidence may well lie in careful, well-reasoned arguments. Virtue and goodwill can be shown by identifying with the values and interests of the audience. Note the interaction between ethos and pathos here as the author s credibility depends on the audience s belief in his or her goodwill. Intelligence and Common Sense
1. Have I used arguments that sound reasonable to me? Would the arguments that I use be convincing to me? Are they based on ideas that make sense to my audience? Do the ideas follow each other in a logical way? 2. Have I overstated my case using inappropriate exaggeration? Have I exaggerated any of the statements that I make? Have I used words that are too strong? Have I used examples or details that are outlandish? Have I carefully qualified my assertions? 3. Have I allowed for doubts and uncertainties? Few stands or viewpoints are unequivocally one-sided. Do I allow for doubts my own and those of other people? Do I acknowledge and honestly talk about those doubts and uncertainties? 4. Have I acknowledged other viewpoints? Every subject has a number of different viewpoints, some of which may be shared by members of the audience. Do I recognize those differing viewpoints as valid and worthy of discussion? Virtue and Good Character 1. Have I compared myself and my case to persons of known integrity? If I know certain persons or situations that my audience thinks of as honest and sincere, how can I connect my ideas with those persons or situations? 2. Can I put the issue within a larger moral framework? If I am discussing women s rights, for example, can I put that issue within the larger one of human rights, thereby adding to the significance of the question that I am discussing? 3. Have I stated my beliefs, values, and priorities in connection with this issue? If I am discussing women s rights, for example, have I made it clear that I believe in the rights of all human beings? If I am discussing the right to vote, have I made it clear that I believe in the tenets of a democratic form of government? Goodwill 1. Have I acknowledged and given careful consideration to the audience s viewpoint? If I am advocating a certain candidate for office do I acknowledge that the audience my have a good reason for supporting another candidate? 2. Have I reviewed our points of agreement? If I am trying to persuade my audience to vote for a bond issue to support schools, do I point out that good education is our investment in the future, and that in a democracy equal educational opportunities should be open to all children? 3. Have I reminded my audience of our common interest and concerns? For example, in connection with a school bond issue, have I reminded my audience that better schools will bring in new business and in many ways improve the quality of life in the community. 4. Have I demonstrated that I respect and acknowledge my audience s intelligence, sincerity, and common sense? Kairos
Kairos is an ancient Greek word meaning the right or opportune moment or the supreme moment. The ancient Greeks had two words for time, chronos and kairos. While the former refers to chronological or sequential time, the latter signifies a time in between, a moment of indeterminate time in which something special happens. What that special something is depends on who is using the word. While chronos is quantitative, kairos has a qualitative nature. Brugger s helpful hint: it may help to think of kairos like you would carpe diem. Carpe diem, you ll recall, is a phrase from a Latin poem by Horace that has become an aphorism. It s popularly translated as seize the day. Carpe literally means to pick, pluck, pluck off, cull, crop, gather but Ovid used the word in the sense of, to enjoy, seize, use, make use of. Kairos, then, is like seize the moment.