HISTORY 303: HANDOUT 1 Dr. Robert L. Cleve TERMS #1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION Chronology: the arrangement of events, dates, names, etc., along a time line in the order of their occurrence. History: the systematic and truthful record, analysis and explanation of the past actions and events of humankind, based on the surviving evidence. Historical Truth: 1. only what the evidence obliges us to believe, Michael Oakshott; 2. what the evidence makes it possible to believe, Thorkild Jacobsen. Sources for Ancient History: 1. Artifacts 2. Art 3. Written documents 4. Numismatics 5. Literature Artifact: Art: any object made by human work; studied by archaeologists. products of creative work such as painting, statues, monuments, architecture, etc.; studied by art historians. Written Documents: 1. inscriptions on solid material, usually stone, but also bronze, pottery, etc.; 2. documents written on papyrus, a paper-like material made from the papyrus reed. Epigraphy: the study of inscriptions. Papyrology: the study of papyrus (plu. papyri) documents. Numismatics: the study of coinage. Philology: the study of ancient literary texts to determine their meaning, authenticity, etc. Plutarch: Greek philosopher and historian of the late first/early second century A.D.; he wrote a collection of biographies of famous Greeks and Romans known as Plutarch s Lives.
Historical Tradition: the process of selecting and passing information down from generation to generation, either orally or written. Culture: the concepts, habits, skills, arts, instruments, institutions, etc. of a people in a given period. Civilization: a highly developed social and political organization, marked by advances in the arts, sciences, etc. Herodotus: father of history; Greek historian who flourished in the 5th century B.C. Xerxes:: Persian king in the 5th century B.C., led the invasion of Greece. TERMS #2 MESOPOTAMIA Challenge-Response Theory: proposes that civilizations originate in response to their geographical environment. Tigris and Euphrates: the principle rivers of the Mesopotamian plain. Taurus and Zargros: mountain ranges north of Mesopotamia. Levant: the Syrian-Lebanon-Palestine area. Mesopotamia: literally the land between the rivers ; the ancient Near East. Fertile Crescent: Mesopotamia and the Levant as one geographical unit. Catal Hüyük, Jarmo, Jerico: first agricultural settlements (8000-7000 B.C.) Anatolia = Asia Minor = (modern) Turkey Sumer: the first near eastern civilization, from c. 3500 B.C. Halaf, Ubaid: pre-historic cultures, or periods, in Mesopotamia. Eridu, Ur, Uric, Lagash, Nippur: some important cities of Sumer. Proto-Literate Period: (3500-2700) the pre-historic period in Sumer. Cuneiform: the ancient Sumerian system of writing (not in itself a language). Early Dynastic: Period: 2700-2400; the first period of Sumerian civilization. King of Kish : title of the ruler of the dominant city of Sumer. Gilgamesh: the half-legendary ruler of Uruk; hero of the famous epic. Enkidu: friend and companion of Gilgamesh. Utnapishtim: the Sumerian Noah ; survivor of the flood. Semitic, Indo-European: language families or groups, not races. Akkad: area of Semitic settlement north of Sumer Sargon: king of Akkad; builder of world s first empire. Istar: fertility goddess; patron of Sargon; important deity in Babylonian and Assyrian religion. 2
Naramsin: last king of Akkadian Empire; assumed the title king of the Four Quarters of the World. Gutians: barbarian people who overran Mesopotamia c. 2371 B.C. Elam: mountainous area east of Sumer, from whence hordes of barbarians constantly raided the Mesopotamian civilizations. Ur-Namu: most famous king of the Third Dynasty of Ur. Third Dynasty of Ur: Sumer s late golden age, c. 2113-2006 B.C.; referred to in textbook as the Sumerian Revival. Ziggurat: tall, terraced temple tower, probably built to imitate a mountain. Hammurabi: founder of the Babylonian Empire; famous lawgiver. Ibbi-Sin: last king of the Third Dynasty of Ur. Amorites: Semitic people who settled around Babylon. Babylon: capital city of the Babylonian Empire. Assyria: the empire of the Assyrians, c. 1350-612 B.C. Hittites: Indo-European people who settled in Asia Minor and founded a great empire, c. 2000-1200 B.C. Kassites: a barbarian people who ushered in a period of chaos in Mesopotamia, c. 2000-1200 B.C. Ninevah: Persia: capital of the Assyrian Empire; destroyed in 612 B.C. largest of the Near Eastern empires before the Greco-Roman age; included the entire Near East as far as east as India and as far west as Egypt. History 303 Dr. Cleve TERMS #3 NEAR EASTERN RELIGION Enuma Elish: the Sumerian/Babylonian/Assyrian creation myth Transcendence: existence apart and separate from the material universe Omnipotence: all powerful; unlimited and universal power, force and authority Immanence: existence within the material universe; opposite of transcendence. Intransitive: existence of a divine force as a specific natural phenomenon; for example the god of the storm, the goddess of fertility, etc. When the phenomenon is active, the god is active; when the phenomenon is inactive, the god is inactive, or dormant. 3
Apsu (fresh water) and Tiamat (salt water): the first gods, may be thought of as the Judaeo-Christian void or deep (Genesis 1.2). Lahmu and Lahamu: second pair of gods Anu = An: the sky god Ea: the god of sweet waters Enlil = Marduk: the storm god, king of the gods. Mummu: an evil god and accomplice of Apsu and Tiamat in the war against the younger gods. Kingu: the evil god from whose blood Ea created human beings. Utnapishtim: the Sumerian Noah, he and his family were the only human beings to survive the great flood sent by the gods; he built a boat and saved a pair of each species of animal; for this the gods granted him immortality. Primitive Democracy: believed to have been the earliest system of government in Sumer, whereby the government was run through democratic assemblies of all the people. ilu rabiutum: the group of about 50 gods who controlled assembly discussions. igigi: the seven gods who control destinies; their unanimous consent was necessary to carry a decision. Third Dynasty of Ur: the golden age of Sumer from c. 2113 to 2006 B.C. Ur-Nammu: founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur. Nanna = Sin: the moon god, son of Enlil, patron deity of Ur. Ibbi-Sin: Last king of Third Dynasty of Ur; captured by the Elamites in 2006 B.C., marking the end of Sumerian civilization. Amorites: Semitic people who settled around Babylon, built the Babylonian Empire. 4
Akkadian seal impressions: the world of the gods. The Enuma Elish (which are the first two words of the epic and mean When on High ) is the creation myth of ancient Mesopotamia. This is the Babylonian version of a much older Sumerian myth and originally the chief figure of the myth was Enlil, the Sumerian storm god. When Babylon conquered the rest of Mesopotamia and established the Old Babylonian Empire around 1800 B.C., it became necessary to explain how the local god of Babylon, Marduk, had now become supreme among the gods. Therefore, the older Sumerian myth of creation was retold and Marduk was substituted for Enlil. 5
When on high the heaven had not been named, 1 Firm ground below had not been called by name, Naught but primordial Apsu, their begetter, (And) Mummu 2 Tiamat, she who bore them all, Their waters commingling as a single body; 3 No reed hut had been matted, no marsh land had appeared, When no gods whatever had been brought into being, Uncalled by name, their destinies undermined Then it was that the gods were formed within them. Lahmu and Lahamu were brought forth, by name they were called Before they had grown in age and statue. Anshar and Kishar were formed, surpassing the others. They prolonged the days, added on the years. Anu was their heir, of his fathers the rival; Yea, Anshar s first-born, Anu, was his equal. Anu begot his image Nudimmud. 4 This Nudimmud was of his fathers the master 5 Of broad wisdom, understanding, mighty in strength, Mightier by far than his grandfather, Anshar. He had no rival among the gods, his brothers. The divine brothers banded together, They disturbed Tiamat as they surged back and forth, Yea, they troubled the mood of Tiamat By their hilarity in the abode of Heaven. Apsu could not lessen their clamor And Tiamat was speechless at their [ways]. Their doings were loathsome unto [..]. Unsavory were their ways; they were overbearing. Then Apsu, the begetter of great gods, 1. Had not been created. The ancients believed that naming a thing was, in itself, an act of creation. 2. Probably an epithet in the sense of mother. Not to be confused with the vizier Mummu who is mentioned later. 3. I.e., the fresh waters (Apsu) and the salt waters (Tiamat) have not been separated yet. 4. Another name of Ea (=Enki), the god of the earth and water. 5. Ea was master both because he possessed exceptional strength and wisdom, and because he was able to subject the elder gods to his will. 6
Cried out, addressing Mummu, his vizier: O Mummu, my vizier, who rejoices my spirit, Come hither and let us go to Tiamat! They went and sat down before Tiamat, Exchanging counsel about the gods, their first-born. Apsu, opening his mouth, Said unto resplendent Tiamat: Their ways are verily loathsome unto me. By day I find no relief, nor repose by night. I will destroy, I will wreck their ways, That quite may be restored. Let us have rest! As soon as Tiamat heard this, She was wroth and called out to her husband. She cried out and aggrieved, as she raged all alone, Injecting woe into her mood: What? Should we destroy that which we have built? Their ways indeed are most troublesome, but let us attend kindly! Then answered Mummu, giving counsel to Apsu; [Ill-wishing] and ungracious was Mummu s advice: Do destroy, my father, the mutinous ways. Then shalt thou have relief by day and rest by night! When Apsu heard this, his face grew radiant Because of the evil he planned against the gods, his sons. As for Mummu, by the neck he embraced him As (the one) sat down on his knees to kiss him. (Now) whatever they had plotted between them, Was repeated unto the gods, their first-born. When the gods heard (this), they were astir, (Then) lapsed into silence and remained speechless. Surpassing in wisdom, accomplished, resourceful, Ea, the all-wise, saw through their scheme. Made artful his spell against it, surpassing and holy. He recited it and made it subsist in the deep, As he poured sleep upon him. Sound asleep he lay. When Apsu he had made prone, drenched with sleep, Mummu, the advisor, was powerless to stir. 7
He loosened his 6 band, tore off his tiara, Removed his halo (and) put it on himself. Having fettered Apsu, he slew him. Mummu he bound and left behind lock. Having thus upon Apsu established his dwelling, He laid hold on Mummu, holding him by the nose-rope. After Ea had vanquished and trodden down his foes, Had secured his triumph over his enemies, In his sacred chamber in profound peace had rested, He named it Apsu, for shrines he assigned (it). In that same place his cult hut he founded. Ea and Damkina, his wife, dwelled (there) in splendor. In the chamber of fates, the abode of destinies, A god was engendered, most able and wisest of gods. In the heart of holy Apsu was Marduk created. In the heart of holy Apsu was Marduk created. He who begot him was Ea, his father. Now Tiamat created an army of monsters and renewed the conflict. This time Ea could not withstand the attack. The gods decided to ask Marduk to defend them against Tiamat. Lord Anshar, father of the gods, [rose up] in grandeur, And having pondered in his heart, he [said to the Anunnaki]: He whose [strength] is potent shall be [our] avenger, He who is keen in battle, Marduk, the hero! Ea called [Marduk] to his place of seclusion. Giving counsel, he told him what was in his heart. Forth came Marduk, the wisest of the gods, your son, His heart having prompted him to set out to face Tiamat. He opened his mouth, saying unto me: `If I indeed as your avenger, Am to vanquish Tiamat and save your lives, 6. His refers to Apsu, not Mummu, who was only the vizier and thus not entitled to a band, or tiara. 8
Set up the assembly, proclaim supreme my destiny! When jointly in Ubshukinna 7 you sat down rejoicing, Let my word, instead of you, determine the fates. Unalterable shall be what I may bring into being; Neither recalled nor changed shall be the command of my lips! Now hasten hither and promptly fix for him your decrees, That he may go forth to face your mighty foe! They erected for him a princely throne. Facing his fathers, he sat down, presiding. Thou art the most honored of the great gods, Thy decree is unrivaled, thy command is Anu. 8 Thou, Marduk art the most honored of the great gods, Thy decree is unrivaled, thy word is Anu. From this day unchangeable shall be thy pronouncement. To raise or bring low these shall be (in) thy hand. Thy utterance shall be true, thy command shall be unimpeachable. No one among the gods shall transgress thy bounds! Adornment being wanted for the seats of the gods, Let the place of their shrines ever be in thy place. O Marduk, thou art indeed our avenger. We have granted thee kingship over the universe entire. When in assembly thou sits, thy word shall be supreme. Thy weapons shall not fail; they shall smash thy foes! O lord, spare the life of him who trusts thee, But pour out the life 9 of the god who seized evil. Having placed in their midst a piece of cloth, They addressed themselves to Marduk, their first-born Lord, truly thy decree is first among gods. Say but to wreck or create; it shall be. Open thy mouth; the cloth will vanish! Speak again, and the cloth shall be whole! 7. The assembly hall of the gods. 8. That is, has the authority of Anu, who was formerly the chief god. 9. This expression is taken from the shedding of blood, which was considered by the Babylonians to be the basis of life. 9
At the word of his mouth the cloth vanished. He spoke again, his fathers, saw the fruit of his word, When the gods, his fathers, saw the fruit of his word, Joyfully they did homage: Marduk is king! They conferred on him scepter, throne, and vestment; They gave him matchless weapons that ward off the foes: Go and cut off the life of Tiamat. May the winds bear her blood to places undisclosed. Bel s 10 destiny thus fixed, the gods, his fathers, Caused him to go the way of success and attainment. He constructed a bow, marked it as his weapon, Attached thereto the arrow, made his right hand grasp it; He raised the mace, made his right hand to grasp it; Bow and quiver he hung at his side. In front of him he sat the lightening, With blazing flame he filled his body. He then made a net to enfold Tiamat therein The four winds he stationed that nothing of her might escape, The South Wind, the North Wind, the East Wind, the West Wind. Close to his side he held the net, the gift of his father, Anu. He brought forth Imhullu the Evil Wind, the Whirlwind, the Hurricane, The Fourfold Wind, the Sevenfold Wind, the Cyclone, the Matchless Wind; Then he sent forth the winds he had brought forth, the seven of them. To sir up the inside of Tiamat they rose up behind him. Then the lord raised up the flood-storm, his mighty weapon. He mounted the storm-chariot irresistible [and] terrifying. He harnessed (and) yoked to it a team-of-four, The Killer, the Relentless, the Trampler, the Swift. Sharp were their teeth, bearing poison. They were versed in ravage, in destruction skilled. On his right he posted the Smiter, fearsome in battle, On the left the Combat, which repels all the zealous. For a cloak he was wrapped in an armor of terror, With his fearsome halo his head was turbaned. 10. Another name for Marduk. 10
The lord went forth and followed his course, Towards the raging Tiamat he set his face. In his lips he held a spell; A plant to put out poison was grasped in his hand. Then they milled about him, the gods milled about him, The gods, his fathers, milled about him, the gods milled about him. The lord approached to scan the inside of Tiamat, (And) of Kingu, her consort, the scheme to perceive. As he 11 looks on, his 12 course becomes upset, His will is distracted and his doings are confused. And when the gods, his helpers, who marched at his side, Saw the valiant hero, blurred became their vision. Tiamat emitted [a cry], without turning her neck, Framing savage defiance in her lips: Too important art thou [for] the lord of the gods to rise up against thee! Is it in their place that they have gathered, (or) in thy place? Thereupon the lord, having [raised] the flood storm, his mighty weapon, [To] enraged [Tiamat] he sent word as follows: Why art thou risen, art haughtily exalted Thou has charged thine own heart to stir up conflict,... sons reject their own fathers, Whilst thou, who has born them, has foresworn love! Thou has appointed Kingu as thy consort, Conferring upon him the rank of Anu, not rightfully his, Against Anshar, king of the gods, thou seekest evil; [Against] the gods, my fathers, thou has confirmed thy wickedness. [Though] drawn up be thy forces, girded on thy weapons, Stand thou up, that I and thou meet in single combat! When Tiamat head this, She was like one possessed; she took leave of her senses. In fury Tiamat cried out aloud. To the roots of her legs shook both together. She recites a charm, keeps casting her spell, 11. Marduk 12. Kingu s 11
While the gods of battle sharpen their weapons. Then joined issue Tiamat and Marduk, wisest of gods They strove in single combat, locked in battle. The lord spread out his net to enfold her, The Evil Wind, which followed behind, he let loose in her face. When Tiamat opened her mouth to consume him, He drove in the Evil Wind that she close not her lips. As the fierce winds charged her belly, Her body was distended and her mouth was wide open. He released an arrow, it tore her belly, It cut through her insides, splitting the heart. Having subdued her, he extinguished her life. He cast down her carcass to stand upon it. After he had slain Tiamat, the leader, Her band was shattered, her troupe broken up; 13 And the gods, her helpers who marched at her side, Trembling with terror, turned their backs about, In order to save and preserve their lives. Tightly encircled, they could not escape. He made them captives and he smashed their weapons. Thrown into the net, they found themselves ensnared; Placed in cells, they were filled with wailing; Bearing his wrath, they were held imprisoned. And the eleven creatures which she had charged with awe, The band of demons that marched.[...] before her, He cast into fetters, their hands [...]. For all their resistance, he trampled (them) underfoot. And Kingu, who had been made chief among them, He bound and accounted him to Uggae. 14 He took from him the Tables of Fate, not rightfully his, Sealed (them) with a seal and fastened (them) on his breast. When he had vanquished and subdued his adversaries, 13. The following lines divide Tiamat s forces into three categories: (1) the gods who had gone over to Tiamat, (2) the eleven kinds of monsters which Tiamat had created, and Kingu, Tiamat s new husband and general. 14. The god of death. 12
Had...the vainglorious foe, Had wholly established Anshar s triumph over the foe, Nudimmud s desire had achieved, valiant Marduk Strengthened his hold on the vanquished gods, And turned back to Tiamat whom he had bound. The lord trod on the legs of Tiamat, With his unsparing mace he crushed her skull. When the arteries of her blood he had severed, The North Wind bore (it) to places undisclosed. On seeing this, his fathers were joyful and jubilant, They brought gifts of homage, they to him. Then the lord paused to view her dead body, That he might divide the monster and do artful works. He split her like a shellfish into two parts: Half of her he sat up and coiled it as sky, Pulled down the bar and posted guards. He bade them to allow not her waters to escape. He crossed the heavens and surveyed the regions. He squared Apsu s quarter, the abode of Nudimmud, As the lord measured the dimensions of Apsu. The Great Abode, its likeness, he fixed as Esharra, 15 The Great Abode, Esharra, which he made as the firmament. Anu, Enlil, and Ea he made occupy their places. He constructed stations for the gods, Fixing their astral likenesses as constellations. He determined the year by designating the zones: He set up three constellations for each of the twelve months. After defining the days of the years [by means] of (heavenly) figures, He founded the station of Nebiru 16 to determine their (heavenly) bands, That none might transgress or fall short. Alongside it he set up the stations of Enlil and Ea. Having opened up the gates on both sides, 17 Apsu. 15. Poetic name for the earth, which the Babylonians visualized as the dome of 16. The planet Jupiter. 17. The gates of East and West through which the sun was believe to pass. 13
He strengthened the locks to the left and the right. In her belly he established the zenith. The moon he caused to shine, the night (to him) entrusting. He appointed him a creature of the night to signify the days: Monthly, without cease, from designs with a crown. At the month s very start, rising over the land, Thou shalt have luminous horns to signify six days, On the seventh day reaching a [half]-crown. At full moon stand in opposition in mid-month. When the sun [overtakes] thee at the base of heaven, Diminish [thy crown] and retrogress in light. [At the time of disappearance] approach thou the course of the sun, And [on the twenty-ninth] thou again stand in opposition to the sun. It was Kingu who contrived the uprising, And made Tiamat rebel, and joined battle. They bound him, holding him before Ea. They imposed on him his guilt and severed his blood (vessels). Out of his blood they fashioned mankind. He 18 imposed (upon it) the service and let free the gods. After Ea, the wise, had created mankind, Had imposed upon it the service of the gods That work was beyond (human) comprehension; As artfully planned by Marduk, did Nudimmud create it Marduk, the king of the gods divided All the Anunnaki 19 above and below. He assigned (them) to Anu to guard his instructions. Three hundred in the heavens he stationed as a guard. 18. Ea. 19. The underworld gods. 14