Ottomans in the Modern World (19 th -20 th C.):

Ottomans in the Modern World (19 th -20 th C.): Section 2: Overview: the 19 th Century - debates, discourses, dichotomies Oct. 24-26

Overview: Ottomans in Modern World Quataert: -19 th C. transformations generated debate, stimulated new discourses within Empire - also continue to generate parallel debates, discourses within historiography - latter often expressed in terms of dichotomies oversimplifications of complexity Ottoman transformation

Overview: Ottomans in Modern World Most Significant Transformations: - boundaries of empire - structure of state administration - nationalist struggles within empire - larger Islamic world external to empire - economy (both domestic and foreign )

Overview: Ottomans in Modern World Reflected in: Ottoman discourse and debate - discussions of equality, identity, modernization - Tanzimat Reforms - Intellectual movements (both internal and external)

Overview: Ottomans in Modern World Reflected in: historian s portrayals of empire as - Sick Man of Europe - Puppet of West - Colony of European Economy

Overview: Ottomans in Modern World Key discourse : formulated as dichotomies - Modern (education, economy) vs. Traditional - Young (modern) vs. Old (traditional) - Christian vs. Muslim - West (including Russia) vs. East - Revolution vs. Reform

Overview: Ottomans in Modern World Over Next Several Lectures: - will explore both the transformations themselves, and the debates they generated - will try to understand both how historians have seen these changes, and how Ottomans saw them at the time - will argue that the societies that emerge in the post- WWI dismantling of Empire actually were born in process of 19 th century Ottoman transformation

Changing Nature of State Many 19 th C. changes had origins with Selim III (1789-1807) - recognized importance of understanding foreign languages (European principally, but also Eastern) led to establishment Translation Bureau under Mustafa IV 1821 - directly connected to role of Greeks, Armenians as state s main translators -- dragomans --at time of Greek War Independence (below)

Changing Nature of State - also seen as response to control of new elite over class who moved into administration - Translation Bureau became starting point for ambitious civil servants - French acquired special prominence (among European languages): synonymous with modernization

Changing Nature of State -Muslim, and non-muslim students accepted: all part of creating yet another new elite loyal to state - reflected in growth of bureaucracy: - c.1800: 2,000-1908: 35,000 - needed for growing control by state of public works, health, education, changing economy

Changing Nature of State Late 18 th, early 19 th C. Ottoman military defeats: attributed to failure of armies - already recognized by Selim ( New Order 1792-3): new diplomacy seen as answer (embassies abroad, diplomatic missions) - 1834 apparatus set up for establishment permanent embassies abroad in all major cities of Europe, Russia, Persia (even America)

Changing Nature of State In 19 th C.: balance between interests in West (Europe) and East (Persia, Central Asia) shifted: - European languages took priority over Persian - most sought-after posts now in Europe - Foreign Ministry became most desirable posting - three Grand Viziers from critical Tanzimat Reform (below) began careers here

Changing Nature of State Mahmud II (1808-39) built on earlier reforms: [many attribute all reforms to him; we are to a large extent following Abou-El-Haj here in recognizing precedents] - ministries established with set duties, regular salaries - legislative bodies established provincially - population registers instituted - centrally-controlled army achieved

Changing Nature of State But Changes Difficult to Implement: - too few men - too little training - too many older bureaucrats with vested interests - too much resentment of Europe (among the older administrators)

Changing Nature of State Significant: - older administrators (part of pasha/vizier elite ) publicly associated changes with Europe in order to generate resistance: were they really European or was this simply an effective discourse to protect their older (vested and invested) interests? - result was: reforms successfully implemented usually led by young men with European education (further reinforcing association of change with Europe in eyes of others)

Defeat of the Janissaries Concern with lack of performance of military, increasing rebelliousness had led to earlier attempts to limit power of Janissaries - Selim III had attempted major overhaul - established new army : European trained, fought like Europeans - was successful in Battle Acre against French 1799

Defeat of the Janissaries - seen (correctly) as threat by Janissaries - 1807: revolted, had Selim deposed, policies rescinded - Mahmud II (successor): resolved to deal with Janissaries but knew to tread more carefully

Defeat of the Janissaries - strategy: build up special army, artillery corps among janissaries loyal and owing to him - June 4 1826 New Army formed from best of janissaries - again, (the rest of the) janissaries revolted - some say they were actually incited to (by the Sultan s men) but

19 th C Images: Janissaries

Defeat of the Janissaries - street mobs loyal to sultan (some say orchestrated ) forced janissaries in Istanbul back to their barracks - they were then surrounded and attacked by Mahmud's artillery - they set fire to barracks, killing janissaries trapped inside

Defeat of the Janissaries Spread to and Repeated throughout Provinces: - Mahmud had loyal troops carefully distributed as if expecting revolt - all those associated with janissaries (dervishes, clerics, guild members) killed or banished - Fall of janissaries beginning of radical reform of Empire [see Destruction of the Janissaries, in Additional Readings, two versions]

Tanzimat Reforms Sultan Abdul Mejid (1839-61): initiated the next most significant reform of Empire - November 3 1839, he gathered the Notables of Empire (pashas, viziers, ulema) - foreign minister read statement known as the "noble rescript" or the Rose Chamber Decree (where it was read) - February 18, 1856, another such statement was issued -- the Imperial Rescript

Tanzimat Reforms These are known as the Tanzimat Reforms : - fair to say, both issued under some pressure: debate is which pressure most influential? - internal pressures, responding to conditions arising from 18 th problems? (Abou-El-Haj) - external pressures, responding to European Governments needs, demands (to facilitate their own interests) [see Tanzimat Decree, 1839 Additional Readings]

Tanzimat Reforms (cont.) Tanzimat: - a "palace revolution" that strengthened the bureaucrats in power (or rising in power)? - attempt to incorporate ideas about individual liberty and equality, within framework of autocratic government - contained germ of constitutional monarchy

Tanzimat Reforms (cont.) Rescript 1856: - specifically dealt with equalizing Muslims and non- Muslims (already begun with clothing law of 1829 that had removed previously existing restrictions/prescriptions of clothing depending on ethnicity, religion) - reforms to taxation, military conscription, education - extended rights,privileges and responsibilities of Muslims to non-muslims

Tanzimat Reforms (cont.) Debate: - what was real impetus for and consequences of Tanzimat Reforms? - to what degree were they internal responses to internal problems (as Abou-El-Haj argues)? - to what degree were they externally forced by (and for) Europe (as most of the literature argues)? [see Tanzimat (1) & (2), in Additional Readings]

Tanzimat Reforms (cont.) Reforms provoked criticism within society: - changes were seen/presented: - as un-islamic - as undercutting traditional social relations Echoes of earlier criticisms (Mustapha Ali, Kocu Bey) which romanticized both the notion of traditional and of Islam - practice, interpretation of Islam evolving as integral part of state, ulema evolution 17 th -18 th C. - social relations in major transformation

Tanzimat Reforms (cont.) Reforms provoked criticism within society: - alternately: they did not go far enough - new, western-educated elite, new civil service wanted greater popular participation in government [at least of their class] - led to emergence Young Ottomans (1860s) calling for real reforms including a constitution [more on Young Ottomans Nov. 14-16]

Tanzimat and Issues of nationalism Tanzimat Reforms both Reflected and Influenced: - changing role millets in empire - growing/changing role of Muslims in military - impact on relations between Muslims, non-muslims - tensions between ethnicity, religion, ideas of nationalism

Tanzimat and Issues of nationalism The issues surrounding Tanzimat come together in the discussion of nationalism, presented as THE major factor tearing the Ottoman Empire apart in the 19 th C. - degree of Western influence (political, intellectual) - desire of non-muslims to acquire rights - consequences of rights in terms of responsibilities - failure of millet system

Tanzimat and Issues of nationalism To Examine these arguments, interpretations, we need to look at major 19 th c. independence movements: - Russia - Greece - Serbia-Bulgaria

1820s: Russia, Armenia, the Caucuses - Armenians scattered Caucuses, Eastern Anatolia - territories disputed Russia, Persia, Ottomans 1828: - Russia defeated Persia, annexed Erivan - heart of today s Armenia created - Turkish Muslims expelled

Russia, Armenia, the Caucuses Tsarist regime: established peace - fostered commerce, industry - generated urban growth - invested in railroads - region prospered Expulsion 1000 s Turks left their property, wealth in hands of (mostly) Russian Armenians

Russia, Armenia and the Caucuses Russian imperialism left legacy: - hatred between Turks, Armenians in region - Armenians well represented in Ottoman cities (merchants, financiers) -1863 Constitution recognized special rights -1894-6 violence leading to massacres unparalleled in ferocity and scope [Quataert] [see Williams, Hijra and Forced Migration, Resources]

Armenians (18 th C.)

Russia, Armenia and the Caucuses Treaty of Berlin (1878): - assigned Kars, Adahan, Batumi region to Russia - another (forced influx) Turkish Muslims - intensified ethnic tensions between peoples of Caucuses, refugees and local communities

Greek Independence Nationalist ideals stronger European regions: - Turks (remnants Ottoman imperialism ) resented, feared - First Balkan rising in Greece, 1821 - among Greeks, many educated, wealthy benefiting from position in Ottoman empire - no desire to lose what they had - Greek Orthodox clergy had power, wealth

Greek Independence Religion (not language, residence), distinguished wealthy Orthodox Greeks from Muslim Ottomans: - some Anatolian Greeks did not speak Greek -"Greece" not a definable place: half of 4 million Greeks in modern mainland Greece - 2 million scattered in towns along coast Anatolia, Black Sea, Mediterranean.

Greeks Orthodox Patriarch, Women, Musician (18 th C.)

Greek Independence Why? Who were instigators of Rebellion? - if majority would have been content to remain in empire why battles for independence? - many doing well, especially in commerce, shipping - also had strong ties to Europe, aware of ideas, possibilities being discussed there (eg. rights to political voice) - influenced by French Revolution

Greek Independence Leaders: - members secret society founded Odessa 1814 - son of Greek fur trader living in Moscow, also lived in Paris - merchant from Odessa belonged to anti-turkish society - merchant Ionian Islands, links to National Guard (created by British during occupation)

Greek Independence Occupation, links to outside world -- typical of those who organized rebellion in exile: 153 merchants, shippers 60 notables 36 soldiers 24 priests 23 minor officials 22 teachers/students 30 professionals

Greek Independence Russian ties among leaders -- Little nationalism : - planned uprising Romania failed - locals ignored Turks (intended target) - attacked local notables (including Greeks with property)

Greek Independence Class divisions among Istanbul Greeks undermined uprising: - Orthodox Patriarch hanged - new church leader, notables condemned revolt Only success in south: - local leaders joined in fear - Turkish towns destroyed, Turks massacred - Turks retaliated with bloodbath

Greek Independence [ George Finlay, contemporary account] In the meantime the Christian population had attacked and murdered the Mussulman population in every part of the peninsula. The towers and country homes of the Mussulmans were burned down, and their property was destroyed, in order to render the return of those who had escaped into the fortresses hopeless. From the 26th of March until Easter Sunday, which fell, in the year 1821, on the 22nd of April, it is supposed that fifteen thousand [Muslims] souls perished in cold blood and that about three thousand farmhouses or Turkish dwellings were laid waste." [from McCarthy, The Ottoman Turks, pp. 327-9]

Greek Independence

Greek Independence

Greek Independence Independence struggle continued: - stalemate in south until 1825 - Armed peasants interests clashed with those of wealthy assembly members - those in shipping, commerce - 1823: Civil War (not independence war)

Greek Independence Unstable Situation Threatened interests of Great Powers : - conflicting concerns: -potential for more influence if movement successful but - feared what it would mean for Ottoman stability, geopolitical concerns

Greek Independence In Western Europe: - Greek revolt aroused sympathy among public - Britain backed insurrection 1823, Ottomans weak - Greece viewed as cradle of Western Civilization - romantically portrayed as Christians casting off rule of decaying Muslim Empire - found favour among the Western European public.

Greek Independence Lord Byron: - spent time in Albania, Greece - organized funds, supplies (including provision several ships) - died from fever in Greece, 1824 - Byron's death added to European sympathy for Greek cause: widespread - eventually contributed to Western powers intervening

The mountains look on Marathon -- And Marathon looks on the sea; And musing there an hour alone, I dream'd that Greece might yet be free For, standing on the Persians' grave, I could not deem myself a slave.... Must we but weep o'er days more blest? Must we but blush? -- Our fathers bled. Earth! render back from out thy breast A remnant of our Spartan dead! Of the three hundred grant but three, To make a new Thermopylae. [Byron] Greek Independence

Massacre at Chios [Delacroix]

Liberty Leading the People [Delacroix]

Greek Independence 1825: - Turkey engaged Mehmet Ali (Egypt) - modern navy, army invaded successfully 1827; - Great Powers sent fleet to defeat Mehmet Ali, - mediated peace, destroyed Egypt s navy 1828-30: - Russia invaded Turkey - Istanbul threatened, Turkey submitted

Greek Independence 1828: - small state (800,000) created - ruled by former minister 1831: - assassinated by local aristocracy

Greek Independence 1832: - London Protocol created small independent Greek kingdom - ruled by German prince - acceptable to all three Powers Greece the first province to withdraw successfully from Ottoman Empire

Images of the War (Ottomans, above; Greeks, right & next slide)

Greek Independence

Greek Independence Ruled as monarchy until 1844 when conservative constitution put in place: - Conservative elite/oligarchy increased power - intermediary of Sultan no longer present - Turkish property gradually redistributed to Greek peasants - most had some land by 1870

Greek Independence Dissatisfaction with government: - army coups 1843 (forcing constitution) - 1862-4 (became integral part Greek politics) - Many Greeks remained part of Ottoman empire

Serbian-Bulgarian Independence Serbians revolt 1804, 1816: -1829 granted autonomy tributary principality - Russia continued to support Serbian, Montenegran demands for independence - expulsions of Muslims continued - Serbia, Montenegro sought to absorb Ottoman province Bosnia-Herzegovina - territory 50% Muslim (rest Orthodox, Catholic)

Serbian-Bulgarian Independence

Serbian-Bulgarian Independence 1875: - Serbs in Bosnia rebelled - rebellion bloody, put down by Ottoman army 1876: - Bulgarian nationalists rebelled - 1000 Turkish peasants killed first days of rebellion

Serbian-Bulgarian Independence - Army occupied territory - local Turks, Circasans,Tatars armed to help put down rebellion - 3,000-12,000 Christians killed before rebellion over

1877-78: Russians intervened Serbian-Bulgarian Independence - local Bulgarian revolutionaries, peasants sought revenge and land - agents (Cossacks, army officers) sent in to provoke uprisings

Serbian-Bulgarian Independence [from McCarthy]: In a typical Turkish village, Cossacks would disarm the villagers, then surround the village and shoot all but a few who tried to escape. Hemmed in, the Turks were attacked by Bulgarians, who murdered the inhabitants... The scenes recorded by European diplomats equal any pictures of inhumanity and horror in history...

Congress of Berlin (1878): - acknowledged Russian victories - Great Powers dictated terms Serbian-Bulgarian Independence - Bulgaria -- autonomous and tributary principality within Ottoman territory with Christian government

Bosnia-Herzogovina: Serbian-Bulgarian Independence - occupied, administered by Austria-Hungary - Kosovo remained under Ottoman rule - details for joint administration negotiated Serbia: - granted independence - detailed stipulations freedom of religion, access to rights

Serbian-Bulgarian Independence Treaty of Berlin: - addresses issues of religion, equality [see Articles XXV (Serbia), XLIV (Romania), LXII ( The Sublime Porte ) in Treaty of Berlin, Additional Readings] - many Muslims refugees who returned to homes in what became Russian territories or independent states like Bulgaria were murdered or enslaved

Nations or States? Quataert: states preceded nations in age of nationalism: - religious struggles underlying ethnic and nationalist struggles (eg. Greece) - foreign powers Russia but also Britain, France, Germany, Italy -- played roles - undermines simplistic view that imported Nationalism was tearing apart empire,