Westernization in the Middle East: The struggle and failure of the Ottoman Empire to adapt western political and social culture

Westernization in the Middle East: The struggle and failure of the Ottoman Empire to adapt western political and social culture

The Ottoman Empire in many ways is considered the last great power of the Muslim World. These impressive peoples survived an empire for nearly seven centuries. This extensive period of time saw much change in the Ottoman political culture as a result of the progression of time and humanity. Near the end of their reign, the Ottomans attempted a sort of Westernization in the political realm in hopes of survival in an ever changing world. In many ways the efforts of the Ottomans can be related to the modern day attempt of much of the Middle East to democratize the Islamic nations there. In this paper, using a plethora of both primary and secondary sources, I will attempt to relate the efforts and failures of the Ottoman Empire to adopt Western political culture to the struggle that preoccupies much of the world with the Middle Eastern question. The Ottoman Empire s attempt at political reform in accordance with a western agenda was a failure due to social, ethnic, and religious traditions and in that respect is similar to the Middle Eastern Nations struggles for democratization today. Before attempting to explain the political changes of the Ottoman Empire, it is essential to understand where they came from and their original political ideology and government structure. The Turks had settled the Anatolia many years before the Ottoman Empire was recognized. The large scale settlement however did not begin until the Seljuk Empire under the reign of Malik-Shah established Turkish tribes on the steppes of central Anatolia. 1 It would be several more years until the Ottomans would organize and become a unified people in search of land and power. This organization came at the invasion of the Mongols. It was this invasion that created a sort of power vacuum in the Anatolia which allowed for the rise of a small and rather insignificant tribe known as the Qayi. However, it was from this small tribe that a great and powerful leader would arise and establish what would become the Ottoman Empire. 1 Leiser, Gary. The Origins of the Ottoman Empire (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992, 43.

Osman I was the leader of the Qayi tribe and was a leader of the Seljuk province near Byzantium. 2 Upon the opportune circumstances of Byzantium anarchy and the abandonment of Byzantium land, Osman founded a new tribe from his own name, hence the term Ottoman, and conquered the open lands. 3 After this first military victory, Osman declared their tribe s independence in 1299. 4 It is fair concern to wonder what kind of governmental structure Osman would adopt; however, it had already been laid out for him. The Anatolian Turks had been a part of the military authoritative style of government of the Seljuks for many years and were no stranger to the idea of provinces of an empire being used for both defense and attack to gain enemy territory and protect their own. 5 The Ottomans would adopt this tactic with an added tactic of rapid settlement into new territory and converting the Turks from a nomadic people to settlers. 6 While the succession line of the Ottoman sultans could efficiently explain the development of Ottoman political culture, it is not necessary for the purposes of this paper. Focusing on four major Sultans that proceeded Osman, the political and governmental tendencies of the Ottomans prior to 18 th century can be accurately depicted. One such sultan was Murad I who reigned as sultan from the mid to late 14 th century. It was under Murad I that the Ottomans captured Thrace, Macedonia, Serbia, and Bulgaria. This established the Ottomans firmly in the Balkans for the first time. By the end of Murad I the Ottomans were considered a powerful empire controlling the Balkans and most of the Anatolia. 7 2 Leiser, 73-74. 3 Leiser, 109. 4 Blake, Robert P., and Langer, William L. "The Rise of the Ottoman Turks and Its Historical Background." The American Historical Review 37, no. 3 (1932): 490. 5 Leiser, 77. 6 Blake and Langer, 482. 7 Leiser, 110-111.

The Ottomans had entered Europe and many nations were allying themselves with the young but powerful Ottomans. 8 This shows a new side to Ottoman politics. Although they were a military state that had constantly been on conquest for years, the Ottomans were not opposed to negotiation and alliances. The relationship between the Ottomans and their Western allies is best depicted in the treaty of 1387 between the Ottoman ruler Murad I and the Comune of Genoa. 9 The treaty begins by establishing the agreement between parties when it reads, On the second of March, 1387, ratified by all possible means, right and form by which they best could, approved and confirmed all pacts, conventions and agreements made between the magnificent lord Murad on one side and the illustrious Comune of Genoa on the other. The agreement explains the revenue on trade goods between the Genoa and Ottomans saying, The ambassadors promised in the name of and on behalf of the Comune of Genoa to do and ensure that the collectors of the tax of Censaria shall restore to the aforesaid lord Murad all quantities of money taken and received. 10 The Censaria was a brokerage tax on goods sold. Apart from the brokerage tax, Ottoman merchants would be free from taxation on goods bought and sold where the treaty says the Genoa agreed to restore goods and merchandise taken from Murad. 11 Murad s time as sultan shows the never ending conquest of the Ottomans, but also depicts the diplomacy of the Empire and its ability to peaceably work with other nations. Mehmed II is the next sultan of mention due to his crucial campaigns and his governing structural policies. Mehmed II was also known as Mehmed the Conqueror. He ruled from the mid to late 15 th century. He continued the Ottoman military ideology through his campaigns, the 8 Cox, Harold E., and Hupchick, Dennis P. The Palgrave Concise Historical Atlas of the Balkans (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 19. 9 Fleet, Kate. "The Treaty of 1387 between Murād I and the Genoese." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 56, no. 1 (1993): 13. 10 Fleet, 16. 11 Fleet, 24.

most famed achievement being the capture of Constantinople in 1453. Mehmed continued the conquest of the Balkans and pushed further into Europe establishing the Ottomans there. 12 However, the most significant aspect of Mehmed II military reign was the reunification of the Ottoman Empire around Istanbul. 13 An important creation of Mehmed II in regards to Ottoman government was the millet system. The millet, or nation, system was instituted in 1454 under Mehmed II. The idea was to create an institutional structure for the administrative incorporation of non-muslim groups who the Ottomans had conquered. There were three main millets created housing the Orthodox Christians, the Jews, and the Armenian Christians. These millets were based on religious affiliation and were governed by high ranking religious officials there. Millets were internally self-governed so each could tax, judge, and make laws so long as it did not conflict with Islamic law and Muslim ruling. They also had representation on the Ottoman court. So long as there were no issues these millets had significant religious and cultural autonomy. However, it is important to note that this millet system was not the same at western idea of a nation. They were based strictly off religion and ethnicity with no territorial definition. 14 Selim I, the grandson of Mehmed II, is worth a brief mentioning in this discussion. Although he was one of the most successful conquering sultans, for the purpose of this paper it is only essential to realize that as a part of the expeditions, Selim I invaded the Mamluk empires of Egypt in 1516 and entered Cairo after the Mamluks defeat in 1517. 15 From this point until the late 18 th century the Ottomans would establish and rule Egypt under their provincial government system. 12 Cox and Hupchick, 19. 13 Inalcik, Halil. "Mehmed the Conqueror (1432-1481) and His Time." Speculum 35, no. 3 (1960): 422. 14 Cox and Hupchick, 22. 15 Casale, Giancarlo. The Ottoman Age of Exploration (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 23-25.

When explaining the most impactful sultans of the Ottoman Empire, it is not possible to give an accurate account without mentioning Suleiman the Magnificent. During his reign, for most of the 16 th century, Suleiman moved further into Europe than any sultan before him and in 1521 and captured south Hungary. 16 This was considered the Golden Age of Ottoman expansion and indeed the Empire itself. By the end of Suleiman s campaigns Ottoman control stretched from Morocco to Iran and from Hungary to Ethiopia. 17 The government was an efficient machine under Suleiman. He had an official law code known as the kanunname drawn up for all the territories. 18 It involved a tax law that called for payment to the empire from the poorer classes known as the reaya which was made up of peasants, artisans, and merchants. The political hierarchy was an empire ruled by the sultan while the askeri, or upper class, ruled the provinces and the reaya paid for the functioning of the empire in return for protection under the Ottomans. Although autonomy was still allowed in the provinces, the governor and military officials of each land were sent from the Ottoman capital. 19 Social and political structures would remain unchanged until the first real invasion of the Ottoman Empire by European forces when western ideas would intrigue the subjects of the Ottomans and create a desire for authoritative change. Napoleon Bonaparte landed on the shores of Alexandria in July of 1798, and began his victorious campaign up the Nile River in pursuit of the retreating Mamluks. Prior to Napoleon s invasion in 1798, there had been no significant military intervention from Western European nations. By 1799 the conquest of Upper Egypt was complete. However, the French forces would 16 Cox and Hupchick, 22. 17 Barbir, Karl K., and Hathaway, Jane. The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516-1800 (Hoboken: Taylor and Francis), 119. 18 Barbir and Hathaway, 102. 19 Barbir and Hathaway, 103-106.

not make it to the red sea after Mamluk rebellions arose and counter attacks against Napoleon were organized. The French were pushed back to Cairo which became their sole possession in Egypt. Napoleon, realizing the lost cause and wanting to continue campaign in Europe, fled back to France leaving General Kebler in command of the remaining forces. 20 Before moving any further into the French occupation of Egypt, it is imperative to explain the Ottoman rule of Egypt and the bureaucracy involved that preceded Napoleon s invasion. Egypt under Ottoman rule consisted of two interrelated hierarchies. One consisted of Ottomans and the other was run by Mamluks. 21 This government structure is essentially the same form of rule that was established in all millets and provinces of the Empire and had been for centuries. The best way to describe the details of positions and interworkings is by drawing from a firsthand account by Huseyn Efendi who was a professional scribe and administered the treasury during the French occupation, but primarily explains life under the Ottoman Bureaucracy in his writings. 22 In his work Efendi explains the role of the Governor of Egypt. The Governor represented the sultan in official functions. He, along with the sultan, would establish taxes which were collected by an administrative staff known as Efindis. Aside from establishing and collecting taxes the Governor was to protect the Imperial Canals of the Nile and repel any danger to the citizens from invaders or uprisings. The Governor was able to control the region through an Ottoman military force that was at his disposal which consisted of soldiers, captains, or quapudan, and lieutenants, or kethoda. 23 20 Shaw, Stanford J. Ottoman Egypt in the Age of the French Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press), 13-17. 21 Shaw, 3. 22 Shaw, 29. 23 Shaw, 36-37.

Under Ottoman control, Egyptian law was a part of the regions autonomy although it had to adhere to Shari a and was passed by the Ottoman ruling class of learned men who knew the law and Muslim sciences. These men were overseen by a Qadi, known as the deputy of the sultan who came from Istanbul to Cairo to decide cases that involved Holy Law. 24 What is important to realize is that although the region was autonomous, there were no native Egyptians in government. Everything was run by the Ottomans or the Mamluks and because of Ottoman revenue demand, only 12 percent of total tax collected went to expenditures for Egypt. The remaining taxes that was paid by Egyptian peasants, as mentioned in the Suleiman policies imposed, went to wages for workers, expenditures for holy cities, and revenue sent to the sultan. 25 This was the bureaucracy of Egypt under the Ottomans before the invasion of the French. Not long after Napoleon left, General Kebler assembled his remaining troops and left Cairo. The French were only in Egypt for a little over three years, but in that time made a lasting influence. They began the process of implementing government and policies that contradicted and overturned long-established institutions of the Ottomans. 26 The French had come into Egypt proclaiming that they were liberating the people from the oppressive Mamluks who would have been the communal leaders of Egypt in the Ottoman Empire. There was no attack on religion by the French as was seen in the Crusades, but rather on the governmental structure of the Ottomans. The French imposed their idea of republicanism and the representation of the common people. 27 The French invasion presented a unique opportunity for the native Egyptians. Napoleon s conquering of Egypt had caused the governor, 24 Shaw, 41. 25 Shaw, 55. 26 Shaw, 25. 27 Barbir and Hathaway, 398.

administration, and ruling class of Mamluks to flee the region. This meant that the French would have to create a whole new class of administration and government. They could not possibly run the government alone. As a result the French appointed Egyptians to run government which was the first time the natives had been a part of administration since Selim I had conquered Egypt nearly 300 years ago. Apart from appointing Egyptians to government positions, Bonaparte and the French also established a general council known as the divan ul-umumi. In this council each of the thirteen provinces of Egypt sent nine delegates which consisted of upper class, merchants, peasants, and a Bedouin Chief to represent them. The council met for the first time in 1798. During the meeting it recommended tax change and assessed the Muslim system of justice and laws. 28 It was this council s meeting and reforms that gave the peasants a voice in government and led to them having the first opportunity to have absolute right over their property and land. 29 French administration, law, and language had been imposed, social reform such as serf emancipation and land redistribution were initiated, and ideas of liberal democracy and nationalism were put into practice. 30 Perhaps the most important outcome of the French invasion was that it showed the native Egyptians the benefit of the managing their own affairs with the positions they held and the revenues they acquired. French left Mehmed Ali in control of Egypt who centralized the Egyptian state and is considered the founder of modern Egypt. 31 The French occupation appeared to have had an impact since there was imperial decline and decentralization in the Empire simultaneously occurring with communal leaders, such as 28 Shaw, 23-24. 29 Shaw, 27. 30 Cox and Hupchick, 25. 31 Masters, Bruce Alan. The Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, 1516-1918: A Social and Cultural History (New York: Cambridge University Press), 155.

Mehmed Ali, seeing an increase in judicial and authoritative responsibilities. 32 Following the French occupation, the Ottomans attempted to unify Muslim and non-muslim populations. They would make bureaucratic reforms to adhere to the Western government ideas that had become popular in the provinces of the Ottoman Empire, the most significant attempt being the Tanzimat reforms. 33 Throughout the 19 th century sultans and government officials attempted to adapt to Western pressures while at the same time trying to preserve Islamic tradition. This period is known as the Tanzimat beginning with Mahmud II in 1826. The overall goal was to westernize the military and government administration of the Empire. 34 Mahmud II attempted to centralize government and reassert the power of the sultan by dismantling positions such as the Grand Vezirate and reorganizing agencies such as the scribal service in 1838. He also created two new councils, the consultative assembly of the sublime porte and the supreme council of judicial ordinances. These councils would run legislative processes related to military affairs which was a drastic shift away from the military-patronage system that the Ottomans had known for so long. It was councils like these that the Ottomans would constantly compare to European parliament in hopes of mirroring its function and therefore westernizing properly. 35 Other reforms included the centralization of tax collecting and the disbursement of revenue. Assigned salaries were given to officials and replaced the old practice of fee collecting by officials per province. 36 32 Findley, Carter V. Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire the Sublime Porte, 1789-1922 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press), 21-22. 33 Müge Göçek, Fatma. "Ethnic Segmentation, Western Education, and Political Outcomes: Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Society." Poetics Today 14, no. 3 (1993), 528. 34 Cox and Hupchick, 26. 35 Findley, 140-141. 36 Findley, 144.

Following Mahmud s progressive attempts, the Tanzimat reforms carried on the westernization doctrine. The term comes from the Arabic word Nizam meaning reorganization, and thus this period became known as the period of reform. The Tanzimat reformers were initially led by Mustafa Resid who pushed for further reforms in the 1850 s. 37 One of the biggest changes was the Reform Decree of 1856 that allowed non-muslims to hold a government office in the Empire. 38 Another major reform was the post 1856 reform that saw the reorganization of the nearly 400 year old millet system implemented during the reign of Mehmed the Conqueror. 39 Reforms such as these were attempts by the Tanzimat bureaucrats to counter the nationalism movement sweeping the empire with the ideology of Ottomanism. This idea of Ottomanism sought to promote a loyalty to the Ottoman Empire rather than a desire to establish and independent country. This caused the push for abolition of discriminatory practices against non- Muslims and to grant them equality. Reshid Pasha, advocate of the reform, said, "The hope was that such general guarantees of equal protection under law would strengthen the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire by increasing the loyalty of its subjects, Christian as well as Muslim, and by diminishing separatist tendencies." The problem was that the feelings towards non-muslims had long been rooted in the traditions and laws of Islam. It was simply an unrealistic change for the Muslims who made up the majority of the Empire. The problem with reorganizing the millet system was that the autonomy that had long been given to the different religious and ethnic groups was now to be removed which was not supported by the non-muslim population. 40 37 Findley, 152-153. 38 Findley, 195. 39 Cox and Hupchick, 26. 40 Weiker, Walter F. "The Ottoman Bureaucracy: Modernization and Reform." Administrative Science Quarterly 13, no. 3 (1968), 462-464.

There were many other issues that would ultimately lead to the failure of the Tanzimat reformists. Even with reforms of the 1830 s, the old principles of official servility, dichotomy of ruling, and subject classes were not abolished but simply covered up by new measures. Another problem was split up modernization. This was the idea that society and government was split into three groups, the first being the original Tanzimat reformers, the second being the younger group of modernizers who were frustrated because of the slow moving process and their greater knowledge of western ideas, and finally the conservative numbers who saw modernity as no more than French fashion. 41 Even the advocates for modernization in the split up system were still defined by traditional terms thus making it more difficult for social reform to be taken seriously. 42 Essentially the reformers refused to practice what they preached. The reforms the Tanzimat statesmen implemented were not applied regularly. 43 One example is that although non-muslims were allowed in office by the decree mentioned above, there was hesitation to promote them to higher offices even by the Tanzimat statesmen who proposed the reform. The Tanzimat reformers and indeed all bureaucrats of the time were defined by a patrimonial faction with no understanding or desire to realize the issues with the traditional ruling class. 44 Finally, the economic problem that had infected the Ottoman Empire for so long would prove to be an issue. The Empire had a fraction of its wealth that it had in the 17 th century and with little economic support the empire could not keep up with the economic developments of the thriving western countries. 45 41 Findley, 210. 42 Findley, 148-149. 43 Findley, 194. 44 Findley, 207-213. 45 Findley, 161.

The Tanzimat reforms continued with few interruptions until Abduilhamid II ended them in 1877. 46 The reforms that were put into place would not hold. This can be seen in the Tanzimat efforts to incorporate non-muslims into government. During the Tanzimat period, particularly in the 1850 s, non-muslims made up 40 percent of government positions; however, by the end of the reform period their representation dropped to less than 20 percent. 47 Although the reformers failed to repel imperialism and overcome nationalist separatism, they did succeed in postponing the end of the empire for a century. Simply put, attempts to modernize to overcome the threats of nationalism would require abandonment of the Islamic state and absolute monarchy which the public and bureaucrats were not prepared to do. 48 The previous paragraph is a testament to the issue the Middle East faces today with westernization. The recent push for democracy by the world s leaders have failed. Just as the Ottomans attempted to promote equality of non-muslims so have some groups in the modern Middle-East attempted to implement human rights and equality. The idea of a progressive democratic state is simply hard to grasp in a society that has known autocracy for so long. While this is not an attempt to demean the efforts of democratization in the Middle-East, it is simply an argument to realize that westernization will always face difficulty in succeeding in a region that is so deeply rooted in Islamic law and culture. 46 Weiker, 454. 47 Findley, 206. 48 Weiker, 469-470.

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