Mr. Blankenship s Lecture on Trade Routes / Cultural Diffusion and the Collapse of Classical Civilization I. Trade Routes 1. Where / What regions do they connect? (Show map on board) Silk Roads Indian Ocean Trans-Sahara Mediterranean Sea Routes Example: The Incense Trade Route (Part of the Indian Ocean Trade Apparatus): In the southwestern part of Arabia known as Arabia Felix happy Arabia the name referred to the area s fertility. Located in the peninsula s mountainous southwest, in what is now Yemen, it catches the warm, wet winds of the summer monsoon and receives an average of ten inches of rain annually. Incense is the general term for: (frankincense, myrrh, and rarer exotic aromatics) and have grown there for thousands of years. Before the arrival of silk and pepper in the West, incense was the premier luxury product of antiquity. As far back as 3000 B.C.E. Egyptian and then Mesopotamian aristocrats acquired a taste for these fragrant products. Growers harvested the crops mainly in autumn and spring which was out of sync with the winter monsoon sailing up to Egypt or the summer monsoon to sail to India BUT camel caravans could operate year round. There were (2) major uses for these aromatics the 1 st being that they were used by the wealthy to hide the orders of the cities: sewer lines, slaughterhouses, urine, the tannery, fishmonger, and cemeteries. The wealthy could apply particular oils to hide the smells of everyday life in the city! The 2 nd main use of these items were in religious situations. This particular trade hit its height during the Roman Empire where it was allowed to enter Rome dutyfree in contrast to the 25% placed on most other imports. 2. Why the increase in trade during the Classical Period? A. Expansion of Imperial Power which allows for: Stability along trade routes were the key in the expansion of trade during the classical period. Kings / Emperors would put money and effort into the construction of: (roads / canals / bridges etc) to create a unified Empire for: (tax collecting / gov. officials traveling / to move armies) these were all vital in creating a unified, stable, centralized government apparatus. Merchant ships also took soldiers to help with their movement but they in turn provided protection. In doing so indirectly the Empire would in a sense create a more stable environment for (merchants / mystics / religious missionaries) to travel along the same roads, canals and bridges. Some of the Empires that the AP guys want you to know with regards to this are: (Mauryan and Gupta India / Qin and Han China / the Roman Empire / Persia / and Greece under Alexander the Great).
B. Innovation and Technological improvements and the use of new animals 1. Overland technological advancements: (Yokes / Saddles / Stirrups) The Saddle tree came into regular use c. 200 BCE by nomadic peoples of Central Asia followed by the stirrup c. 200 CE. These were developed for horses by the nomads of Central Asia that developed the chariot and who with iron weapons spread havoc throughout the Ancient world. The saddle distributed the rider s weight on the horse s back which allowed the rider to travel longer distances - at a faster speed and prolonged the life of the horse. The stirrup allowed the rider to stand with a composite bow and have better accuracy for shooting. The yoke was beam that tied oxen together that pulled a wheeled cart. (2) New Types of Saddles: South Arabian Saddle: The rider would place this on the back of the camel. It was not good for fighting but allowed the rider to carry large loads of goods. North Arabian Saddle: Began to be in use around 500 BCE to 100 BCE. It puts weight on the ribcage instead of the hump. Allowed the rider to be up higher where he could hold weapons. 2. New animals used: (horses / oxen / camels): (2) types of camels: 1) Dromedary / Arabian single hump 2) Bactrian double hump They can carry loads of 500 pounds. They can survive by eating scrub and thrown bushes in arid conditions. They are more efficient than horses pulling carts. Bactrian Camels: Found in parts of western China and Mongolia. Domesticated in Central Asia around 3000 BCE They can endure extreme hot / cold (surviving temperatures as low as minus 20 degrees) and can go a week without water and a month without food. They have 2 sets of eyelids to protect against sand / and can shrink their nostrils to keep sand out. 3. Maritime Technological Advancements: (Dhow / Lateen Sail)
II. The Political Crisis of the Late Classical Period AP Themes Addressed in This Lecture: Key Concept 2.2 / IV / A and B (Roman / Han / Persian / Mauryan / Gupta) empires created political / cultural / and administrative difficulties that they could not manage, which eventually led to their decline, collapse, and transformation into successor empires or states. (A) Through excessive mobilization of resources, imperial governments caused environmental damage and generated social tensions and economic difficulties by concentrating too much wealth in the hands of the elites examples: (Deforestation OR Desertification OR Soil Erosion OR Silt Rivers). (B) External problems resulted from security issues along their frontiers, including the threat of invasions: examples: (Han China and the Xiongnu OR Gupta and the White Huns OR Romans and their northern neighbors). Key Concept 2.3 / III / B The spread of disease pathogens diminished urban population and contributed to the decline of some empire examples: (Roman Empire OR Han China). A. The Collapse of Imperial Rule In Han China: 1. Deterioration of Political Institutions: Factions and corruption of imperial court, government officials, regional landlords and military leaders all vied for power which paralyzed the Royal Court. Tension in China was mainly between the castrated eunuchs loyal to the Emperor / Confucian-educated scholar-bureaucrats / and the landed aristocrats. The central government s power diminished officials became corrupt power fell into the hands of local landlords who began to place more taxes on the peasants. A lot of these peasants lost their farms and became day laborers some even had to sell their children into service. Assassinations of and by bureaucrats competing for power at the top occurred on several occasions. Disillusioned peasants who were always heavily taxed were burdened with new taxes (they started flipping over camels) some of these guys turned to Taoist religious practices and magic to make them feel better (remember Confucianism is boring) - They revolted in the Yellow Turban Uprising led by Taoist Priests. A series of weak Han rulers were unable to cope with the civil strife and centralized rule began to deteriorate to the point that in 220 C.E. the Dynasty fell. 2. Protection and Maintenance of Borders: Han China had long borders located far from the administrative center and aggressive nomadic neighbors who coveted the prosperity of the Empire. The empire had built a series of walls and chain of forts and garrisons to protect against incursions. The cost of frontier defense was staggering and eventually eroded the economic prosperity of the Empire. The imperial government demanded more taxes and services from the hardpressed civilian population. The government lost the loyalty of their own people who sought protection on the estates of powerful rural landowners.
3. Plagues and Epidemics: During the 3 rd Century C.E. the diseases of: Smallpox, measles and the bubonic plague ravaged Han China to the point that China lost around 10 million from 200 C.E. 400 C.E. The impact of this was that trade declined and the economies contracted. 4. Nomadic Attacks: The Xiong-Nu The greatest foreign challenge that the Han faced came from the Xiongnu a nomadic people from the steppes of central Asia who spoke a Turkish language. They were superb horsemen, were highly mobile and use the composite bow as their main weapon. Because they had no cities or settled places to defend, the Xiongnu could quickly disperse when confronted by a superior force. The Han attempted several different techniques in dealing with them: paying them tribute in the form of food, and finished goods / arranging marriages between the ruling elites of each culture. Neither method succeeded for long. Once the Han collapsed in 220 C.E. these invaders poured into China. War and nomadic invasions led to more population decline. Despite the political and economic disorder the nomadic peoples did go through the process of sinicization in which they adopted Chinese cultural elements such as: sedentary lifestyles, farming, clothes, food. B. The Collapse of Imperial Rule In Gupta India: 1. Deterioration of Political Institutions: The decline of classical civilization in India was less drastic than the collapse of Han China. The ability of the Gupta emperors to control local princes was declining in the 5 th century and as it was the Gupta empire ruled a very decentralized state. Regional rulers began to ignore imperial rule. 2. Protection and Maintenance of Borders: India did have natural borders such as the Himalayas but an entrance known as the Hindu Kush had been known to peoples outside of India and defending this area would require a large amount of troops. 3. Plagues and Epidemics: Historians believe that disease probably made it to India but the effects were no where near the demographic collapse seen in the Roman and Chinese Empires.
4. Nomadic Attacks: The Huns White Huns from Central Asia probably began raids into Northern India from c. 500 C.E. and as the decades went on they penetrated deep into the subcontinent. The Gupta were unable to continue to raise the revenue from local princes to fight these invasions and the Gupta were finally toppled in 550 C.E. C. The Collapse of Imperial Rule in the Western Roman Empire: 1. Deterioration of Political Institutions: Just like the political turmoil in Han China the Western Roman Empire began to witness cracking within the imperial system. Political confusion produced a series of weak emperors and many disputes over succession to the throne factions with the government and the military led to internal decay of imperial power. Between 235 and 284 C.E. there were 26 claimants to the throne only 1 died because of natural causes. Also Roman generals felt less loyalty to Rome and many vied for the throne. The army itself had become over time filled with paid mercenaries who also felt little loyalty to Rome. This also transcended to the local populace as citizens began to lose their patriotism many become indifferent to the fate of the Empire in a sense people stop believing in Rome. Rome s upper classes became steadily more pleasure-seeking turning away from the political devotion and economic vigor that had characterized the republic and early empire 2. Protection and Maintenance of Borders: Like Han China Rome also had long borders which took countless sums of money to build walls, forts and garrisons. Which new wealth not coming into the Empire the Romans lacked new sources of gold and silver desperate for revenue, the government raised taxes but like Han China saw a rise in resentment amongst the local populace. Recruitment of troops became more difficult so the empire was increasingly reduced to hiring Germanic soldiers to guard its frontiers the need to pay troops added to the demands on the state s budget. 3. Plagues and Epidemics: During the 2 nd through 4 th centuries Rome was ravaged by disease the population of the Roman empire fell 25% in the 2 nd century. The population of Rome fell from 1 million to 250,000.
4. Nomadic Attacks: The Huns / Germans Germanic peoples had migrated from their homelands in northern Europe and lived on the eastern and northern borders of the Roman empire since the 2 nd century C.E. Some of Germanic peoples settled, adopted agriculture and drew deep inspiration from Roman society. They adapted Roman law to the needs of their own society and some even converted to Christianity in the late 4 th century. They contributed large numbers of soldiers to the Roman armies but the Romans preferred that they stay outside of the imperial borders and to create buffer states. During the late 4 th century, the relationship between the Germanic peoples and the Romans changed dramatically when nomadic Huns began an aggressive westward migration from their homeland in central Asia the Huns spoke a Turkish language, and were probably cousins of the nomadic Xiongnu who inhabited the central Asian steppe lands west of China. During the mid-5 th century Attila the Hun invaded: Hungary, the Balkans, Gaul and northern Italy and attacked Germanic peoples living on the borders of the Roman Empire. The Huns placed pressure on various Germanic tribes who in turn streamed en masse into the Roman Empire in search of refuge eventually leading the Roman imperial collapse in 476 C.E. 5. Deforestation: According to a new theory, environmental damage, and particularly deforestation, to meet the needs of the luxurious elite caused a whole host of problems eventually weakening the Empire to the point that it could no longer stand. Building w/ wood: Wood was the primary construction material for houses and public buildings throughout the Empire. Even such massive and well-known icons as the coliseum were originally built of wood, and building palaces for the Emperors and other nobles required massive timbers, some of which would be discarded only a few years later when the palace was destroyed for an even larger one. Marble only became common in later years when wood supplies ran low Heating w/ wood: Almost all heating was done by wood and wood products and while it may not seem like such a major factor it becomes a different story if you think about the Roman baths. The public baths were kept constantly at a minimum of 130 degrees Fahrenheit, and even a very small bath required 228,000lb (large palaces required 2,506000lb/yr) of wood per year. The Emperors recognized the importance of the baths in keeping the populace happy, and made keeping them running a primary goal.
Wood for industry- Almost all of the Roman industries required some quantity of wood. Felling trees for agriculture: As the Empire became more and more urbanized, the population grew as never before in European history. The enormous population required vast farmlands, and most of the Italian peninsula (which had been heavily forested) was cleared for farming. Effects of Deforestation Soil depletion: Probably the primary effect of this widespread deforestation was the loss of topsoil throughout Italy. Rich hillside soil washed away with no vegetation to hold it in place, decreasing crop yields. In an empire that was already struggling to feed its massive population, this depletion struck a devastating blow. Famines and riots became common. Flight of industry: industries were forced to pick up and move every few years as the surrounding forestlands were depleted. The glass and brick industries moved from the vicinity of Rome to the south of Gaul, causing exorbitant shipping costs to drain the economy. The draining of the treasury was made worse in the 2nd Century AD, when the wood supply for the important silver mines in Spain ran low and the supply of new silver was cut off. Rome had a trade deficit of over a million sesteres per year with China, Persia, and Arabia, and without a constant source of new silver this bled the Empire dry. An effort was made under the Emperor Commodus to alleviate the problem by weakening the currency 30%. By 300 CE coins were only 2% silver and considered universally useless. III. Religious Transformations and Spread Along Trade Routes: AP Themes Addressed in This Lecture: Key Concept 2.2. / III / C Religious and cultural traditions were transformed as they spread. Examples: (Christianity AND Hinduism AND Buddhism). The end of the classical period is not simply the story of decay and collapse. This same period, from 200 to 600 CE, saw the effective rise of many of the world s major religions. The devastating plagues cause new interest in belief systems that could provide solace amid rising death rates. Political instability throughout the classical world prompted many people to seek solace in joys of the spirit, and while the religious surge was not entirely new, the resulting changes in the religious map of Europe and Asia and the nature and intensity of religious interests were significant new forces. Traders and Mystics traveled along trade routes promoting new forms of religions in particular the AP guys want you to know about: (Buddhism / Hinduism / Christianity). All emphasized intense devotion and piety stressing the importance of spiritual concerns beyond the daily cares of earthly life (salvation). All 3 offered HOPE especially in times of political instability.
People however would blend old faiths with local / new elements syncretism creating new views and interpretations of old faiths. (Change Over Time). A. The Transformation of Buddhism: Buddhism was altered more substantially than Hinduism as it traveled mainly beyond India s borders becoming only a small minority faith in India itself. The main problem for the spread of Buddhism was the following: How were you to convert those that lived and worked in the world and yet keep to the strict beliefs and traditions of the original teachings of the Buddhism? How to seek a life with no attachments to worldly things but to continue in that world? Because of the complexity of this Buddhism would go through a period of alteration during the 3 rd century BCE and 1 st century CE: The Buddha had become viewed as a god by some. Gods heavens an afterlife developed. The emphasis shifted to popular salvation. Saints emerged to help others reach Nirvana they were known as Boddhisatvas. These particular beliefs / doctrines / and worshipping practices differed to the more austere psychological teachings of the original Buddha. This new form of Buddhism labeled as: Mahayana or the Great Vehicle would retain the some basic Buddhist beliefs HOWEVER the emphasis of the Buddha as a divine savior developed in the Mahayana tradition. Statues devoted to Buddha as god countered the earlier Buddhist hostility to religious images. The religion developed an organization with priests, temples, creeds, and rituals. Buddhist holy men spoke of a super-heaven where past souls and saints could receive prayers and aid people. 1. The Spread of Buddhism into Central Asia: Some Buddhist monks left India and headed north along the Silk Road trade routes in Central Asia. With the possibility with Mahayana Buddhism to be able to obtain ones wealth and still be a Buddhist many traders and merchants along the Silk Roads converted to the new faith. Well to do Buddhist merchants felt like they could earn religious merit by building monasteries and supporting monks. These monasteries in turn provided convenient and culturally familiar places of rest and resupply for merchants making the long and arduous trek across Central Asia. Many of these trading cities along the Silk Road trade route system became cosmopolitan centers of learning and commerce.
2. The Spread of Buddhism into East Asia: Initially when Buddhism arrived into China around the 1 st century C.E. the Chinese took no attention. Confucian leaders, particularly, found in Buddhism beliefs in an afterlife a diversion from appropriate political interests. They disliked the notion of such intense spirituality and also found ideas of the holy life incompatible with proper family obligations. More importantly, Buddhism was seen as a threat that might distract ordinary people from loyalty to the emperor. HOWEVER over time when the Han dynasty collapsed in 220 C.E. people became disillusioned with Confucianism and the scholar s inability to bring the chaos to an end. Some turned to Taoism while others turned to the new religion from India. But there were fundamental differences between traditional Chinese thought and Buddhist beliefs. Some of the changes that occurred or the syncretism B. Hinduism: Buddhism should have disrupted China s firm belief in patriarchal power because Buddhists believed that women, like men, had souls and that they could reach Nirvana in the same manner as men. But Chinese culture generated changes in Buddhism within the empire. Buddhist phrase like husband supports wife were changed to husband controls his wife whereas the wife comforts the husband another phrase from India became, the wife reveres her husband. Challenged by new, spiritually satisfying, and egalitarian movements (like Buddhism), the Vedic religion made important adjustments, evolving into Hinduism - transforming it into a popular religion of salvation. While drawing inspiration from the Vedas and Upanishads Popular Hinduism increasingly departed from the older traditions of the Brahmins. Like Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism experienced changes in doctrine and observances that resulted in a faith that addressed the interests and met the needs of ordinary people. The Upanishads had taught that only through renunciation and detachment from the world could individuals escape the cycle of incarnation. Now, Hindu ethical teachings made life much easier for the lay classes by holding out the promise of salvation precisely to those who participated actively in the world and met their caste responsibilities. As devotional Hinduism evolved and became increasingly distinct from the teachings of the Upanishads and the older traditions of the Brahmins it also enhanced its appeal to all segments of Indian society.
This process by which the Vedic religion was transformed into Hinduism by the 4 th century still maintained the Brahmin priests high social status and influence but sacrifice though still part of traditional worship, was less central, and there was much more opportunity for direct contact between gods and individual worshipers. Hinduism offered salvation to masses of people who, as a matter of practical necessity, had to lead active lives in the world and thus could not even hope to achieve the detachment envisioned in the Upanishads. C. Christianity: For 2 centuries after the crucifixion of Jesus, there was no central authority for the fledgling church individual communities selected their owner supervisors known as bishops who oversaw priests and governed their jurisdictions according to their own best understanding of Christian doctrine. As a result, until the emergence of Rome as the principle seat of church authority in the 3 rd century, Christian held doctrinal views and followed practices that varied considerably from one community to the next. (Some of these we covered in my lecture). Like the Jews from whose ranks they had sprung, the early Christians refused to honor the Roman state cults or revere the emperor as a god. As a result, Roman imperial authorities launched sporadic campaigns of persecution designed to eliminate Christianity as a threat to the empire. In spite of this repression, Christian numbers grew rapidly during the first three centuries of the faith s existence, Christianity found its way to almost all parts of the Roman Empire and Christians established thriving communities through the Mediterranean basin and farther east in Mesopotamia and Iran. In the Roman empire, as in China, the collapse of the imperial state coincided with important social and cultural changes. Christianity was perhaps the most prominent survivor of the western Roman empire. During the 4 th century several developments enhanced its influence throughout the Mediterranean basin the first being Emperor Constantine s legalization of Christianity with the Edict of Milan in 313 C.E. In the 380 s it became the official religion of the empire. Besides winning the right to practice their faith openly and attracting intellectual talent, Christian leaders constructed an institutional apparatus that transformed a popular religion of salvation into a powerful church. To standardize their faith, Christian leaders instituted a hierarchy of church officials at the top were five religious authorizes the bishop of: Rome, and the patriarchs of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople. We will develop this movement later during the post-classical period (600-1450) and the formation of the medieval church.