An introduction to grammatical-relation changing processes
Each verb permits a certain number of arguments: (1) The baby cried. [Intransitive verb 1 argument] (2) Harry took the vase. [Transitive verb 2 arguments] (3) Jenny gave Mike $50. [Ditransitive verb 3 arguments] Choosing the wrong number of arguments makes a sentence ungrammatical: (4) *The baby cried her broken toy. (5) *Harry took. (6) *Harry broke Mike the vase. (7) *Jenny gave Mike. Some verbs allow more than one set: (8) Elvis left. [V INTR ] (9) Elvis left the building. [V TRANS ]
Participants who benefit from an action are normally indicated by for or to (recipients): (10) I brought the ice cream for Mary. (11) The teachers gave a cookie to every child. This preposition can be deleted if the participant is moved right after the verb: (12) I brought Mary the ice cream. Notice: No preposition! (13) The teachers gave every child a cookie. The transformation only works with participants that have a benefactive meaning: (14) I brought the ice for the party. *I brought the party the ice.
The Indirect Object Transformation (=Dative Shift = Applicative) changes an adjunct into an object of the verb, thus resulting in an increase in transitivity by one. It is therefore an example of a transitivityincreasing device: (15) I brought the ice cream for Mary. 1 object: transitive S V O Adjunct (16) I brought Mary the ice cream. 2 objects: ditransitive S V O 1 O 2 Indirect object Direct object
Passivization of (17) is ungrammatical: (17) The teachers gave a cookie to every child. (18) *Every child was given a cookie to by the teachers. After undergoing Dative Shift, passive works: (19) The teachers gave a cookie to every child. Apply Dative Shift: (20) The teachers gave every child a cookie. Apply passive: (21) Every child was given a cookie by the teachers.
Dative shift/applicative (22) You kill that pig. [kill: V TRANS ] (23) You kill that pig for me. [for me: Adjunct] (24) Can you kill me that pig? [2 objects!] Causative (25) The tree fell. [fall: V INTRANS ] (26) The loggers felled the tree. [fell: V TRANS ] (27) The loggers made the tree fall. Increased (28) The loggers had the tree fall. control (29) The loggers caused the tree to fall. (30) The loggers let the tree fall.
Normal word order in transitive active sentences is Subject-Verb-Object: (31) Active: John took the cookie. S V O The passive highlights the original object by making it into the subject of the passive sentence: (32) Passive: The cookie was taken by John. S V PP Three changes have occurred: 1. The original object, the cookie, has become the new subject. 2. The original subject, John, has been moved into a PP with by. 3. The auxiliary be has been added and the verb changed to a participle.
Passives are acquired late. Even very fluent 5- year olds will often not understand them yet. Reasons: 1. Complexity: 3 simultaneous changes are involved. 2. Passive word order runs counter to the basic pattern of the language: Name the agent first! The car hit the truck. Child will pick up the toy car and 1 2 slam it into the truck. The truck was hit by the car. Child will pick up the toy truck and 1 2 slam it into the car.
Chinese: Active: Passive: 他 骂 你 了 你 被 他 骂 了 Tā mà nĭ le. Nĭ bèi tā mà le. he scold you you by he scold He scolded you. You were scolded by him. Contrast with English: - No AUX added. - Bèi agent is preverbal. - Meaning: Adversative [Data from Li, Charles N. & Sandra A. Thompson. 1976. Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar. University of California Press]
German has both, passives from transitives (33 & 34) and from intransitives (35 & 36): (33) Der Junge sah den Mann. the:nom:sg:m boy saw the:acc:sg:m man The boy saw the man. (34) Der Mann wurde von dem Jungen gesehen. the:nom:sg:m man got from the:dat:sg:m boy seen The man was seen by the boy. (35) Die Leute tanzten viel. the:nom:pl people danced People danced a lot. (36) Es wurde viel getanzt. It got much danced There was much dancing. much
Passivization Noun incorporation (33) I went bear-hunting. [hunt: V TRANS ] (34) Book-reading is a dangerous obsession. [read: V TRANS ] Some types of nominalization (35) The destruction was devastating. [destroy: V TRANS ] (36) The enemy s destruction of the city was devastating. But:(37) Destroying (*of) the city was devastating. Morphological reflexives/reciprocals (38) Ni kwəšθ-ət kwθə swǝʔqeʔ [Halkomalem] AUX shoot-self DET man [tones removed] The man shot himself.