How We Got the Bible. Textual Criticism Canonization The History of The English Bible

How We Got the Bible Textual Criticism Canonization The History of The English Bible

TEXTUAL CRITICISM OF THE BIBLE (outline adapted from faithbibleonline.net) Textual Criticism is the science of studying ancient manuscripts to determine the authentic text of the Bible. It is sometimes called Lower Criticism. It is necessary because we no longer possess the original manuscripts of Moses, Paul and others. Textual Criticism deals with Hebrew and Greek, not English translations. Because of the wealth of materials and the difficulties of the many other languages involved, it is one of the most difficult sciences in Bible study. The following is a brief outline of the basic facts and principles.

THE HEBREW OLD TESTAMENT 1. Manuscripts. A. There are about 1,000 Hebrew manuscripts, plus thousands of mere scraps. The Pentateuch is contained in more of them than any other part of the Hebrew Bible. Hand-copying by scribes virtually ceased with the introduction of the printing press in the 15th century. Hebrew Bibles were among the first printed books.

Hebrew Manuscripts B. Some ancient manuscripts had been destroyed during anti-jewish persecutions, such as the Crusades. There are far fewer Hebrew manuscripts for the O.T. than Greek manuscripts for the N.T. C. There are, however, proportionately fewer variations in the Hebrew than in the Greek. Hebrew scribes were more accurate, mainly for religious reasons but also because they copied in their native languages whereas many Greek manuscripts were copied by those who knew only a little or no Greek.

Hebrew Manuscripts D. More than 95% of the manuscripts agree almost verbatim. Those that disagree even tend to disagree with themselves. Jeremiah has more manuscript variations than any other book. Some variations in manuscripts were made in order to counter Christianity, but most were mere slips of the pen or other unintentional errors.

Hebrew Manuscripts E. Many manuscripts have Qere and Ketib. That is, a word is written in the margin indicating the true reading or pronunciation of the text. F. The Dead Sea Scrolls are the oldest manuscripts - 1,000 years older than any others, except a few scraps. They date from before AD 70 and probably much older. Yet there is a remarkable agreement between these and the later manuscripts.

The Dead Sea Scrolls The Dead Sea Scrolls are a collection of 972 texts from the Hebrew Bible and extra-biblical documents found between 1947 and 1956 on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea, from which they derive their name.

The Dead Sea Scrolls

Hebrew Manuscripts G. The Massoretes were Jewish scribes around the 8th and 9th centuries. Since ancient Hebrew used only consonants, problems arose over the pronunciations. The Massoretes added vowels. They were very careful copyists. They sometimes even destroyed a complete manuscript if it was found to have even a single error.

Hebrew Versions (Translations) A. Greek versions include the Septuagint (c. 150 BC), and those by Aquila (c.130 AD), Symmachus (c.170 AD), Theodotian (c.180 AD) and others. B. The Samaritan Pentateuch (about 400 BC) is in a language and script similar to Hebrew. Variations are minor, but some of them are for specific theological reasons - the Samaritans thought they, not the Jews, were heirs of the Covenant.

Hebrew Versions (Translations) C. The Aramaic Targums were paraphrased translations of the Hebrew O.T. Most were written about 200 AD, but some may be pre-christian and others much later. D. Other versions: Latin (Old Latin 150 AD, Vulgate 400 AD), Syriac (2nd to 5th centuries AD), Ethiopic, Coptic, Arabic, Armenian, Georgian, etc.

OT Quotations Most of the Old Testament can be found quoted in other ancient texts: A. The New Testament quotes sometimes from the Hebrew, sometimes from the Septuagint where it differs from the Hebrew, and sometimes makes original quotations. B. The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha contain numerous quotations, usually translated into Greek. The same is true with the New Testament Apocrypha, the Nag Hamadi writings and the like. The early Christian Church Fathers usually wrote in Greek or Latin, and often quoted the O.T.

OT Quotations C. The Dead Sea Scrolls include ancient writings which often quote or paraphrase the Hebrew O.T. These usually, but not always, match the Dead Sea O.T. manuscripts. D. Ancient Jewish non-christian writings are full of quotations from the O.T., such as Josephus, Philo, the Mishnah, the Talmuds, the Tosefta, and so on. And lastly there are some brief quotations on coins, pottery, amulets, and the like.

Principles A. Some variations are obvious and unintentional - word order, misspellings, duplication, etc. Variations of a more serious order add, subtract, substitute or rephrase the text. Still, no more than about 1 to 2% is seriously debated. B. Manuscripts must be collated - comparing manuscripts and making a list of the variants, and then cataloging the variations from all the manuscripts.

Principles C. The scholars then consult the manuscripts and collations, plus the versions, quotations and Masoretic notes. Comparing editions of the Hebrew Bible is also done. It is a painstaking effort. Scholars, like scribes, can make mistakes. D. Using the ancient versions is tricky. They all precede the era of the Masoretes. However, some are not literal translations. Moreover, translating back into Hebrew is not always exact - if translation loses something, then double translation also loses something. It is questionable to rely on a versional retranslation if there are no Hebrew manuscripts with that reading.

Principles E. Conjectural Emendation is basically guessing what the reading should be simply according to context or the editor's theology (usually liberal). Some Hebrew Bibles contain such guesses without support from Hebrew or even the versions. F. Scripture forbids adding to or subtracting from the Bible (Rev. 22:18-19). But it also promises that God has and will providentially protect His Word through the course of history.

Other Comments - OT A. The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls is of monumental importance to OT Textual Criticism. An 1100 year leap closer to the original (autographs) is astounding, as is the level of agreement with the Masoretic texts. B. Still, OT textual criticism is far less extensive, though the OT is larger, it is, of course older. Less manuscripts to piece together means less determination of the original text is needed (or possible). C. Even the most notable disagreements do not call into question the tenets of the faith.

Greek Manuscripts About 5,366 of all kinds, excluding those in category E. A. Papyri are the oldest. There are about 100 of them, many mere scraps. Most date from before 300 AD. Most belong to the Alexandrian family, being from Egypt.

Greek Manuscripts It is not lawful for us to put to death No one; that the w ord of Jesus might be fulfilled; Which he spoke signifying by what death He was about to die. Entered therefore into the Praetorium again Pilate and called Jesus and said to him, "Are you the King of The Jews?" (from P52 Gospel of John, Early 100's)

Greek Manuscripts B. Majuscules were usually written on sheepskin parchment in capital letters called uncials. Most are from before the 9th century. There are some 274 majuscules and about 80% of them are from the Byzantine family, 10% from the Alexandrian and the rest from the Western and Caesarean families. The most important ones: Codex Sinaiticus (discovered near Mt. Sinai), Codex Vaticanus, Codex Bezae, Codex Alexandrinus. Some are palimpsests - a parchment was erased by scraping and then written over, but by careful study we can read the original writing. From Codex Sianiticus

Greek Manuscripts C. Miniscules were written in cursive handwriting in small letters, some on parchment but most on paper. They usually date from after the 9th century and are by far the largest number of manuscripts (2,795). About 90% are from the Byzantine family. D. Lectionaries are collections of the N.T. for public reading in Church services, usually numbered sections of the Gospels. Of the 2,209, some 245 are uncial majuscules and 1,964 are in cursive miniscule script. Most are Byzantine.

Greek Manuscripts E. Miscellanous portions have been found among ancient inscriptions on the walls of the Catacombs, or on ostraca (some 1,624 small scraps of pottery) or amulets.

Greek NT - History A. Many ancient manuscripts were destroyed by Roman persecution. Others were intentionally buried or destroyed once a copy was made, lest the first one fall into sacrilegious disrepair. Younger manuscripts were obviously copied from older manuscripts, most of which no longer exist. B. Not all scribes knew Greek well, especially after 500 AD. Some manuscripts were copied one by one, others in tandem as a scribe dictated from one manuscript to several scribes at once. Later scribes often corrected a manuscript. Some variations are due to alteration by known heretics to suit their nefarious purposes.

Greek NT - History C. Over 200,000 variants are known to exist. A massive and exhaustive effort is being made to collate and catalog them all. Most variants are minor: misspellings, word order, duplication, etc. More significant ones add, subtract, substitute or rephrase. Even so, only about 2-5% of the entire text is seriously debated. The largest sections in debate are Mark 16:9-20 and John 7:59-8:11. D. Only a few manuscripts contain the whole N.T. Many contain mere scraps or individual books (the Gospels are most represented). Acts contains the most variants, while Revelation has fewest manuscripts but proportionately the most variants in number and kind.

Greek NT - History E. Copying by hand virtually ceased after the invention of printing in the 15th century. The largest collections of manuscripts are in the Vatican, the British Museum and the Greek Orthodox monastery on Mt. Athos in Greece. (right- papyrus on display at Vatican Museum)

Greek Manuscripts - Families A. Byzantine (or Majority Witness) makes up some 80% or more of the manuscripts and variations, plus some of the ancient versions. Moreover, those in this family are almost entirely identical and uniform. Most are from the Eastern Mediterranean. B. Alexandrian manuscripts and readings mainly come from Egypt. These readings tend to subtract (or conversely, say some, the Byzantine tends to add to the Alexandrian). 5-10% of the manuscripts are in this family. Even though they tend to be older, they do not agree with themselves as much as the Byzantine manuscripts do.

Greek Manuscripts - Families D. Caesarean manuscripts contain mixed readings from other families. Some scholars deny that this is even a family as such. These supposedly came from Casarea. They number less than 5% of the total. C. Western manuscripts come from the Western Mediterranean and make up about 5% of manuscripts, plus some versions and Fathers. Also not uniform, they tend to add.

Versions (translations) A. Latin: The first translation of the N.T. was probably into the Old Latin (c.150 AD). Jerome later translated the N.T. into the Latin Vulgate (405 AD), which became the standard in the Catholic Church (thus, there are over 8,000 Vulgate manuscripts). The Old Latin tends to be Western, the Vulgate tends to be Byzantine. B. Syriac: The Old Syriac is found in only 2 or 3 manuscripts from the 3rd-5th centuries and contain only the Gospels. The Peshitta was the standard; scholars date it as early as the 2nd or as late as the 5th century. Plus minor ones. C. Coptic: There were two major translations into a Grecianized form of Egyptian. The first was the Sahidic (3rd cent), then the Bohairic (4th cent), plus minor ones. D. Other versions:gothic, Ethiopic, Georgian, Armenian, Arabic, Slavonic, Anglo-Saxon, etc.

The Church Fathers The whole N.T. could be reconstructed from their quotations alone. A. Some of them quoted verbatim, others paraphrased, others only made allusions. B. Their patterns vary like the versions: some Byzantine, others Alexandrian, some Western. C. Fathers from whom most quotations can be culled: Augustine, Origen, Chrysostom, Jerome.

Principles A. As with the O.T., complete collations are being made, but a definite pattern has emerged. All variations, versions and Fathers must be considered. Readings must be judged by age, locality, spread, number, and how they explain the other variants. B. Conjectural Emendation is questionable, but accepted by many even when manuscript evidence is non-existent.

Principles C. The Majority Witness school says that the Byzantine family basically contains the true text. This text is the one underlying the KJV and NKJV. Only a minority of scholars accept this view; most who do are usually Fundamentalists or Greek Orthodox. This view says the other families are defective; older manuscripts didn't survive because they were defective and therefore not used or copied. This text has basically been printed in most Greek editions before 1830 (Erasmus, Stephanus, Beza, Elzivir, etc) and recently in The Greek New Testament According to the Majority Text.

Principles D. The Neutral Text school basically upheld the superiority and virtual infallibility of the Alexandrian family. It was popularized by Westcott and Hort. When the papyri and majuscules agree, that is the authentic text.

Principles E. The Eclectic School is the predominant view today. It says that no one family should predominate, though the Alexandrian is the best. But a reading accepted by 2 or 3 of the other families against the Alexandrian would outweigh it. This school sometimes accepts Conjectural Emendations. This view also stresses the Genealogical Method: the authentic text was grandfather to the 4 families, each of which contain distinctive traits of the original. This view usually says the Alexandrian or the Western is the oldest, the Byzantine the youngest and least reliable. This text is that which underlies the NASB, NIV, ASV, RSV, etc.

Principles F. Finally, Providential Preservation applies to the N.T. Let us neither add nor subtract from the Bible (Rev. 22:18-19). True textual criticism must be scholarly and reverent. As difficult as it is to scholars, and bewildering to non-scholars, it is an important field of research being conducted around the world.

Comments A. Like the OT, the textual none of the textual problems present a difficulty to the Christian faith. B. Ironically, the further away we get from the autographs in history, the closer to them we arrive, as more manuscripts are being discovered and the overall textual witness grows. C. It is a different thing to speak of copying errors, or other textual difficulties, than to question the inerrancy of Scripture. The church confesses faith in the inerrancy of the autographs, not in the textual decisions of later critics.

Textual vs. Higher Criticism Textual Criticism is to be distinguished from Higher Criticism. Higher Criticsm is a critical study of biblical texts to ascertain their literary origins and history and the meaning and intention of the authors. Textual Criticism allows for belief in inerrancy and inspiration. It seeks to honor the text by piecing it back together. Higher Criticism puts the text itself under the critic's judgment. It seeks to deconstruct the text, and is incompatible with inerrancy and inspiration.

An Example Mark's Abrupt Ending. As the ESV text note for 16:9-20 shows, these verses do not appear in a number of early Greek manuscripts. This likely means they were not part of Mark's original composition, which may have used a suspended ending that left readings wanting to learn more about Jesus and his disciples. The longer ending was perhaps added later to satisfy people's interests. (The Lutheran Study Bible, CPH, p. 1653)

But Which Books? The Canon Canon - A biblical canon, or canon of scripture, is a list of books considered to be authoritative as scripture by a particular religious community. The term itself was first coined by Christians, but the idea is found in Jewish sources. The internal wording of the text can also be specified, for example the Masoretic Text is the canonical text for Judaism. The word "canon" comes from the Greek "κανών", meaning "rule". (Wikipedia) (not cannon)

A Gradual Consensus As writings circulated, local pastors and congregations decided which writings to use and which to reject. Universal or near universal usage became a primary criterion for inclusion By 170 AD a general consensus existed We must not imagine that the canon was imposed by ecclesiastical authorities. The canon grew up by many independent decisions of elders who were responsible for their congregations alone. - Michael Marlowe

Apostolic Authorship A major consideration for determining the canonicity and veracity of a writing. All 27 NT books are written by apostles, or very close associates. Mark, a disciple of the apostle Peter Luke (also Acts), an associate of the apostle Paul Hebrews perhaps the exception, though some attribute to Paul James and Jude written by brothers of Christ

Disputed Books Council of Nicea Homologoumena We confess together includes Gospels and most NT books Antilogomena Some spoke against these 7 books: Hebrews, James, 2 nd Peter, 2 nd and 3 rd John, Jude and Revelation Antilogomena not used as Sedes Doctrinae

Rejected Writings Numerous New Testament era writings were rejected for dubious authorship (written under pen names to claim authority) Also rejected for strange and obviously false theology Heresies of Gnosticism and Docetism were common in these writings

Rejected Writings From the Gospel of Thomas: "These are the secret words which the living Jesus spoke and Didymos Judas Thomas wrote. And he said, Whoever finds the explanation of these word will not taste death. Jesus said: Let him who seeks, not cease seeking until he finds, and when he finds, he will be troubled, and when he has been troubled, he will marvel and he will reign over the All. Jesus said: If those who lead you say to you: 'See, the Kingdom is in heaven,' then the birds of the heaven will precede you.

Rejected Writings From the Gospel of Thomas: "If they say to you: 'It is in the sea,' then the fish will precede you. But the Kingdom is within you and it is without you. If you will know yourselves, then you will be known and you will know that you are the sons of the Living Father. But if you do not know yourselves, then you are in poverty and you are poverty. Jesus said: The man old in days will not hesitate to ask a little child of seven days about the place of Life, and he will live. For many who are first shall become last and they shall become a single one. Jesus said: Know what is in

Rejected Writings From the Gospel of Thomas: "... thy sight, and what is hidden from thee will be revealed to thee. For there is nothing hidden which will not be manifest. His disciples asked Him, they said to Him: Wouldst thou that we fast and how should we pray and should we give alms and what diet should we observe? Jesus said: Do not lie; and do not do what you hate, for all things are manifest before Heaven. For there is nothing hidden that shall not be revealed and there is nothing covered that shall remain without being uncovered.

Rejected Writings From the Gospel of Thomas: "... Jesus said: Blessed is the lion which the man eats and the lion will become man; and cursed is the man whom the lion eats and the lion will become man."

Rejected Writings From the Gospel of Phillip: ""Jesus took them all by stealth, for he did not appear as he was, but in the manner in which they would be able to see him... He appeared to the angels as an angel, and to men as a man. Because of this his word hid itself from everyone... When he appeared to his disciples in glory on the mount... he made the disciples great that they might be able to see him in his greatness."

The First Gospel of the Infancy of Jesus Christ tells of a man who is changed into a mule by a bewitching spell but converted back to manhood when the infant Christ is put on his back for a ride (7:5-27). In the same book, the boy Jesus causes clay birds and animals to come to life (ch. 15), stretches a throne his father had made too small (ch. 16), and takes the lives of boys who oppose him (19.19-24). It was easy to dismiss such fiction. http://www.thetruthaboutdavinci.com/missing-books-of-the-bible.html

Jerome's Vulgate Completed in 405 A.D. THE official translation from then until about 1400 As Latin literacy waned, so did accessibility of Bible to many non-scholars

Early English Translations A smattering of incomplete translations during Dark Ages John Wycliffe, late 1300s first English Bible Wycliffe himself was an early reformer, influenced John Huss

John Wycliffe Wycliffe became deeply disillusioned both with Scholastic theology of his day and also with the state of the church, at least as represented by the clergy. In the final phase of his life in the years before his death in 1384 he increasingly argued for Scriptures as the authoritative centre of Christianity, that the claims of the papacy were unhistorical, that monasticism was irredeemably corrupt, and that the moral unworthiness of priests invalidated their office and sacraments (Herring, George. Introduction To The History Of Christianity. New York: New York University Press, 2006.)

William Tyndale Associate of Luther and Melanchton, got a copy of Luther's German bible in 1522 Immediately began to do what Luther did, but in English First to translate from Greek and Hebrew directly to English First to have bible produced in English via printing press. Died in 1536, several editions of Tyndale Bible in production.

King James Version Church of England breaks from Rome 1584 under Hernry VIII Problems with two earlier official translations didn't match COE teachings King James commissioned in 1604, finished in 1611 A team of 47 scholars worked on the translation Still a popular translation today, especially among King James Only movement

Other Important Translations An American Translation (Beck) 1935 Revised Standard Version (RSV) 1952 New American Standard Bible (NASB) 1971 The Living Bible 1971 Good News/TEV 1976 New International Version (NIV) 1978 New King James (NKJV) 1982 English Standard Version (ESV) 2001 Depending on definitions, estimated 900 versions of the English Bible

Translation Approaches, Considerations Translation or Revision (updating language)? Sources used Better textual evidence today Theological Bent? i.e. Catholic Bibles, Reformed influence. Who does the translating? Formal equivalence: NASB, ESV Dynamic equivalence: NIV Paraphrase? Living Bible, Good News Gender Inclusive Language?

Bible Translation By Grade Level Translation Grade Level KJV 12 RSV 12 NASB 11 NRSV 11 ESV 10 NIV 7-8 HCSB 7-8 CEB 7 NKJV 7 NLT 6 GW 5 Message 4-5 NCV 3 NIRV 3

LCMS Bibles? The LCMS does not have an official translation The unofficial/official translation chosen for a hymnal Lutheran Worship used NIV many complained of a reformed influence, especially passages relating to the Sacraments Lutheran Service Book uses ESV more a formal equivalence approach than NIV

LCMS Bibles? Concordia Study Bible (CPH) = NIV translation, NIV study/text notes/helps + Lutheran revisions The Lutheran Study Bible (CPH) = ESV translation + Lutheran study/text notes/helps Not to be confused with the ELCA Lutheran Study Bible (Augsburg Fortress) based on the NRSV, and notes that reflect a different theological bent.