Paper 2: Hagia Sophia in Literature Michael Plasmeier 3/23/2013 Hagia Sophia has had a long and complicated history. It was built as a church, completely destroyed and rebuilt twice early on, has undergone countless renovations, was converted to a mosque, and then to a museum. It is covered in all three of the preeminent architectural histories: A Global History of Architecture by Frank Ching, Mark Jarzombek, and Vikramaditya Prakash 1 ; Buildings Across Time: An Introduction to World Architecture by Marian Moffett, Michael W. Fazio, and Lawrence Wodehouse 2 ; and World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History by Richard Ingersoll, and Spiro Kostof 3. However each of the three books approaches the building from a slightly different angle. A Global History splits sections up into small chunks and tries to cover the world fairly evenly. Buildings Across Time tries to build a narrative around specific cultures and themes, relying less strictly on temporal organization. World Architecture focuses on a few narratives, providing more history, but covering fewer buildings. However all comment on Hagia Sophia s core common feature: the dome, commenting on both the specifics of its construction and on its effect on the space. Organization of Sections All three of the books are organized very differently. All of the books have two levels of organization: the chapters and the organization within a chapter. A Global History has organized its chapters by time period. However, within time periods, A Global History switches between subcontinental regions, usually covering all regions in each chapter quite evenly. In each region at each 1 Ching, Frank, Mark Jarzombek, and Vikramaditya Prakash. A Global History of Architecture. Hoboken, N.J.: J. Wiley & Sons, 2007. 2 Moffett, Marian, Michael W. Fazio, and Lawrence Wodehouse. Buildings Across Time: An Introduction to World Architecture. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2004. 3 Ingersoll, Richard, and Spiro Kostof. World Architecture: A Cross-Cultural History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
time period, A Global History mixes in general history to introduce important buildings, usually covering 4-6 buildings in each region in each time slice. A culture is usually covered in a single time slice, though extensive cultures such as the Egyptian and Roman cultures can be split up. Time slice boundaries are sometimes violated to include similar buildings slight before or after the slice if they fit. On the other hand, Buildings Across Time s chapters are organized by theme, for example: Greek, India, China and Japan, etc. The chapters are further subdivided either by time period (for example: the Greek Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods), or by notable architects (in the Renaissance section). World Architecture s chapters are also organized by time period, with each time period split into three narratives. The time periods are generally longer than in A Global History. In some time periods, these narratives are in similar areas of the world (such as Mesopotamia and Egypt in the chapter on 3000-1500 BCE) or lead into each other (such as Early Christian Italy and Byzantium in 300-600 CE), while in other time periods the narratives are in mostly disjoint parts of the world (such as 200 BCE 300 CE covering both Ancient Rome and Ancient China). There are some similarities. All books only mention each building or site in a single section, even if that site s history spans several periods. For example, A Global History s section on Hagia Sophia in the chapter on 600 CE also includes the buildings conversion to a mosque and subsequent secularization, which occurred in the 15 th century and 20 th century respectively. The building is not mentioned again later in the book in other sections, except in when mentioned in comparison with another building being discussed. Presentation within Section The books different in how they present Hagia Sophia. Even though all books intermix general history, architectural description, they differ in how much of each they include and which other
buildings are discussed around Hagia Sophia. Two of the three books discuss the building s use, while a different two of the three discuss the architectural history of the building. A Global History presents Hagia Sophia within a section on the Age of Justinian the Emperor who built the third and current version of Hagia Sophia in the chapter on 600 CE. The plan and section presented appear to be of the church after the dome was rebuilt in 562 CE, but before the conversion to a mosque, though it is not labeled. The general history of early Christian architecture and Emperor Constantine is presented in the previous chapter, on 400 CE. A Global History contains about two paragraphs of history on Justinian, and includes a description of his Church of Sergius and Bacchus. A Global History inserts a description of St. Vitale in between SS. Sergius and Bacchus and Hagia Sophia, which was built in the sixth century in a style similar to SS. Sergius and Bacchus. The section on Hagia Sophia in the chapter on 600 CE also contains small mentions of one sentence each to the earlier Constantine Hagia Sophia, the conversion to a mosque, and the subsequent conversion to a museum in modern times. The description of Hagia Sophia itself mixes the building s history with an architectural description of the core aspects of the building. There is no description of the building s use. I estimate the relevant descriptions to be about 10% general history, 30% building history and 60% architectural description, and 0% use description. Buildings Across Time covers Hagia Sophia in its section on Constantine and Byzantine Basilicas. Buildings Across Time contains less general history than A Global History. A discussion of early Christian architecture, St. Apollinare, and St. Irene precedes the discussion of Hagia Sophia. The book includes the plans of these and other buildings all on the same page, aiding comparison. The book explicitly labels the plan of Hagia Sophia as being of 527-532 CE. Buildings Across Time also contains a technical description of how the building s support system works, coupled with a history of the dome. The discussion concludes with a description of the ritual for which Hagia Sophia was built between the clergy
and the emperor. However, Buildings Across Time does not mention the building s later conversion into a mosque and museum. This book is about 5% general history, 80% architectural description, and 10% use description, and 5% building s history. World Architecture covers Hagia Sophia in its section on Byzantium, which is located in the chapter on 300-600 CE after the discussion of Early Christian Italy. World Architecture also contains a general history of Emperor Constantine and his influence on architecture. The book emphasizes the transition from outward-facing architecture of imperial Rome to the inward-facing architecture of early Christian churches. The book also discusses Constantine s Hagia Sophia in a separate section before the main discussion of Justine s Hagia Sophia, and is separated by a discussion and photograph of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which a caption labels as being built by the same designers as Constantine s Hagia Sophia. World Architecture provides the most extensive description of the building s history, as it is the only to mention the second (of three) iterations of the building, as well as the only to provide the general history of the Nika riots and the circumstances surrounding Emperor Justinian s rebuilding of Hagia Sophia. Within the discussion of Hagia Sophia, World Architecture provides mention of SS. Sergius and Bacchus as a predecessor to this version of Hagia Sophia. The description here is shorter than in A Global History and is contained within the section on Hagia Sophia. World Architecture then follows with a long description of the building s architectural qualities and a short mention of the dome being rebuilt. This book has about 45% general history, 50% architectural description, 0% use description, and 5% building history. World Architecture also places a greater emphasis on vocabulary words, placing words in bold and defining them in the sentence. The other two books assumed that one was already familiar with the words, or that one would look them up on one s own.
Both A Global History and Buildings Across Time call the building one of the great buildings of the world, though World Architecture also includes value judgments, calling the open space an atmosphere of unparalleled drama. In general, A Global History has the most value judgments. A Global History Buildings Across Time World Architecture Figure 1 A Comparioson of the Focus of Each Book. Estimate Prepared by the author. Architectural Qualities In its description of architectural qualities, A Global History chooses to focus on the dome and its structural support system. A Global History also comments on the windows and the architects intention to make the supports appear effortless, quoting Procopius that the dome must surely seem not to rest upon solid masonry, but cover the space beneath with its golden dome suspended from heaven. A Global History also comments on the scale of the space, especially compared to the buildings external appearance.
Buildings Across Time also chooses to cover the engineering details of the dome, as well as the light from the windows. It also quotes Procopius that the dome seems to float in the air. This book has the shortest description of Hagia Sophia of the three. World Architecture comments on the open plan layout, as well as the fire proof construction. While World Architecture mentions the dome and its support, it also comments on Hagia Sophia s complex succession of concave hollows lower down. World Architecture is the only book which mentions the mismatched proportion and columns, and comments that unlike earlier works, one could not decompose Hagia Sophia into separate components from the outside. World Architecture concludes with a different quote from Procopius which focuses more on the spiritual qualities of the space. Strangely, most books do not make much mention of the mosaics, nor the subsequent renovations, which the other books mention extensively. Special Focus: Changes over Time Hagia Sophia has been restored many times over its history. A beautiful book edited by W. Eugene Kleinbauer et al. provides an overview of Hagia Sophia s history along with photos of the results of the restoration. 4 One can contrast these photos to earlier photos in other books, such as Mobert Mark and Ahmet Ş. Çakmak s Hagia Sophia from the age of Justinian to the present, 5 as well as Rowland J.Mainstone s Hagia Sophia : architecture, structure, and liturgy of Justinian's great church, which focused on the engineering details of the architecture. 6 4 Kleinbauer, W. Eugene, Antony White, and Henry Matthews. Hagia Sophia. Photographs by Tahsin Aydoğmuş. London: Scala Publishers; Istanbul: Archaeology and Art Publications, 2004. 5 Mark, Robert and Ahmet Ş. Çakmak Hagia Sophia from the age of Justinian to the present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 6 Mainstone, Rowland J. Hagia Sophia : architecture, structure, and liturgy of Justinian's great church. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997, c1988.
The first iteration of Hagia Sophia was built as a church in 326 CE by Constantine, the founder of the Byzantine Empire. Constantine became emperor of Rome in 306 CE, converting the Empire to Christianity and moving his capital to what was then Byzantium, and is now today called Constantinople. It was finished in 360 by Constantine s son Constantius II. In 404 rioters burned the original down and it was rebuilt again by 415. Another riot (the nika riots) in 532 destroyed this second version. Only a few weeks later, Justinian ordered the church rebuilt yet again, and it reopened in 537. The main dome collapsed in 558; it was redesigned and rebuilt, and the church yet again reopened again in 562. In 726, Leo III the Isaurian began an iconoclast campaign, removing some of the religious artwork. The basilica suffered damage in both 869 and 989. During the Latin occupation starting in 1204, the church became a Roman Catholic cathedral. The church was renovated in 1344. In 1453, Sultan Mehmed took over Constantinople and transformed Hagia Sophia into a mosque. In 1566, the Ottomans significantly strengthened the building under the direction of Mimar Sinan. It was renovated again in 1847 by the brothers Fossati. Finally in 1935 the building was transformed into a museum by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the first president of Turkey. The original construction did not go exactly as planned. Too much mortar was used, so the great piers began to tilt. The Emperor ordered construction to go ahead anyway. The circular dome had to be changed to an ellipse in order to fit onto the deformed arches. This dome lasted only for 20 years, before collapsing during an earthquake. Even after the dome was rebuilt, the building remains the most deformed building in the Western world after the leaning tower of Pisa. Since the beginning decorative mosaics were added. However, these were removed during the iconoclast campaign of the 8 th century. The mosaics one can see today were added back after that period. The dome collapsed again in 1346, and was rebuilt in 1354 by Astras and Peralta.
When the Muslims took over the building in 1453, they set about making changes to it. Islam prohibits images representing humans and animals, so many of the mosaics were plastered or whitewashed over. A minber and mihrab were quickly added, and the bell tower was removed. In 1566, Mimar Sinan, the Ottoman architect informed the Sultan that the building needed extensive architectural repairs. The buttresses were crumbing, and the minaret which had been hastily built in wood after the city s conquest needed to be rebuilt in stone. In addition, a row of buildings had been built up to the side of Hagia Sophia, some even borrowing stones to build their own houses. The sultan sought to put his mark on the building by refurbishing it. In addition, the number of minarets was increased from 2 to 4. In 1710, Mahmud I ordered the remaining imagery whitewashed over and added a library, fountain, and school for children onto the grounds. Between 1847 and 1849, Abdülmecid I had the brothers Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati renovate Hagia Sophia. Abdülmecid I was a reformer who tried to modernize the Ottoman state. The Fossati brothers again found a building in disrepair. They repaired cracks, and placed iron supports onto the columns. They also removed four flying buttresses which were not supporting the building. They also cleaned up some of the plaster. Abdülmecid I was shocked to the find the mosaics under the plaster. He wanted to preserve them, but conservative factions ordered them to be covered up. 7 Abdülmecid I asked the Fossati brothers to recover them up without damaging them. The non-figural Byzantine mosaics could be left uncovered. The Fossati brothers attempted to restore some of these with paint. However, they used iron nails, which has since caused further damage. It is also here where the 8 large calligraphic roundels were added. 7 It s interesting how different sources differ on if Abdülmecid I truly wanted the mosaics recovered. I suppose the books assumed that he did because he ordered them to be reversibly covered up.
When the building was converted to a museum, the whitewashed finally came down. Thomas Whittemore of the Byzantine Institute was hired to restore the images. As of 1992, a modern restoration is currently in progress to prevent further cracking and leaks in the building. This has the advantage of using modern methods and tools to identify problems. Researchers are currently trying to balance restoring Christian murals with destroying Islamic artwork. Hagia Sophia has had a long and complicated history. As a preeminent architectural example, it is included in architectural textbooks. However, different books choose to focus on different aspects of the design, with some common descriptions. These differences reflect the books desires to emphasize different things. One only has limited space, so one must choose what is important.