HISTORY March 9, 2018
1857 - the year that changed everything
Q. Explain how the uprising of 1857 constitutes an important watershed in the evolution of British policies towards colonial India.(2016)
1856 The British paramountcy was established over India during the tenure of Dalhousie. After annexing Punjab, he extended his control over Peshawar and Pathan tribes in the north west of India. He also annexed a large part of Burma and he extended empire in the east. The successor of Dalhousie, Lord Canning wanted to extend his control over the Persian Gulf region. The revolt of 1857 prevented the grand design of Canning from materializing.
Who was the Governor-General of India during the Sepoy Mutiny? (a) Lord Canning (b) Lord Dalhousie (c) Lord Hardings (d) Lord Lytton Answer: a
Causes of the Revolt Beginning and Spread of the Revolt Consequences of the Revolt
The Military Causes Uses of cartridges made from cow and pig fat (rumored) in new Enfield rifle replaced the older Brown Bess. This use of fat was respectively offensive to the Hindus and Muslims Overseas deployment Differences in salaries for equal ranks.special provisions for European soldiers Refusal to pay Batta (allowance) to Indian soldiers. Soldiers were considered inferior and higher posts were exclusively reserved for Britishers. Post Office Act of 1854, withdrew the privilege of free postage so long enjoyed by the Sepoys. Religious identities seemed to be in crisis as the military authorities forbade sepoys to wear caste and sectarian marks beards, or turbans. Regular humiliation at the hands of British officers The British suffered defeats in 1 st Afghan war (1838-1842) shattering the belief of their invincibility. British suffered major reverses in the Punjab wars (1845-49) and the Crimean War (1854-56).
The threat of conversion The Religious Disability Act of 1850 modified Hindu customs; a change of religion did not debar a son from inheriting the property of his father. The rumor was that the English were conspiring to convert the Indians to Christianity. Were promised promotions if they accepted the 'true faith'. Sepoys knew that the army was. maintaining chaplains at state cost.
The Political Causes The political prestige of the British suffered The paramountcy of the British was established through a number of devices such as direct annexation as in the case of Mysore and Sindh. The method of subsidiary alliance though initially designed to help and protect the local rulers against their wars with the others, also used to create such conditions whereby it led to annexation of these territories by the British. Doctrine of Lapse states under this revolted The house of the Mughals was humbled when Dalhousie announced in 1849 that the successor to Bahadur Shah would have to abandon the historic Red Fort. In 1856, Canning announced that after Bahadur Shah's death the Mughals would lose the title of kings and would be known as mere princes.
The ruler of which one of the following States was removed from power by the British on the pretext of misgovernance?(2007) (a) Awadh (b) Jhansi (c) Nagpur (d) Satara Answer: a
The Economic Causes High rate of taxation Discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products and destruction of traditional handicrafts resulted into deindustrialization which resulted in unemployment The peasants were ruined through exorbitant charges made from their lands by the new class of landlords established under Zamindari system introduced by the British. Middle and upper classes, particularly in the North, were hard hit by their exclusion from the well-paid higher posts in the administration. The craftsmen were destroyed by the influx of the British manufactured goods Systems of law and administration: corruption and oppression
The Socio-religious Causes Foreignness of British rule : racial superiority, no social link Some reforms like Anti Sati Resolution (1829), Widow Remarriage Act (1856), opening of Western education to girls were unpopular among orthodox Hindus. The policy to tax religious schools further anguished both Hindus and Muslims. Racial discrimination by British against Indians, forceful conversion to Christianity The English described the Hindus as barbarian with hardly any trace of culture or civilization, while Muslims were dubbed as bigots, cruel and faithless. Idolatry was renounced and Hindus were dubbed as ignorant and superstitious.
The Immediate Cause When the atmosphere was surcharged with an anti-british feeling the episode of the greased cartridges provided the spark which turned it into a conflagration. The new 'Enfield Rifle' introduced by the British in the army needed a special type of cartridge which had a greased paper cover. This paper had to be bitten off before the cartridge was loaded into the rifle it was rumoured that the grease used in the paper was made of beef and pig fat. This angered both the Hindu and the Muslim sepoys - both the communities felt that their religions were at stake. The Mutiny began...
Revolt One group of historians and writers has asserted that the Revolt was the result of a widespread and well organized conspiracy. They point to the circulation of chappattis and red lotuses, propaganda by wandering sanyasis, faqirs and madaris. They say that many of the Indian regimen s were carefully linked in a secret organization which had fixed 31 May 1857 as the day when all of them were to revolt. It is also said that Nana Sahib and Maulavi Ahmad Shah of Faizabad were playing leading roles in this conspiracy. Other writers equally forcefully deny that any careful planning went into the making of the Revolt. They point out that not a scrap of paper was discovered before or after the Revolt indicating an organized conspiracy, nor did a single witness come forward to make such a claim.
The Spread of the Revolt On 29th March, 1857, the Brahmin sepoy, Mangal Pandey of Barrackpore refused to use the greased cartridge and fired at his adjutant. The revolt broke out at Meerut on 10th May 1857. The Meerut soldiers marched to Delhi and proclaimed the aged and powerless Bahadur Shah the Emperor of India. Delhi was soon to become the Centre of Great Revolt and Bahadur Shah its great symbol. Bahadur Shah in return wrote to all chiefs and rulers to organize confederacy to overthrow British regime. The entire Bengal army soon rose in revolt which spread quickly. Awadh, Rohilkhand, the Bundelkhand, Central India, large parts of Bihar, and East Punjab all shook off British authority. In many princely states, rulers remained loyal to their British administrators, but the soldiers revolted. For example, in Indore, the Holkars remained loyal but many of the Indore troops rebelled and joined sepoys.
people and among leaders, there was complete cooperation between Hindus and Muslims. The Spread of the Revolt (2) Everywhere in Northern and Central India, the mutiny of sepoys triggered popular revolts of the civilian population. After the sepoys had destroyed British authority, the common people rose up in arms often fighting with spears and axes, bows and arrows. In many places, people revolted even before the sepoys did or even when no sepoy regiments were present. It is the wide participation by the peasants, the artisans, shopkeepers and zamindars which gave it real strength as well as the character of a popular revolt, especially in the areas included in present day U P and Bihar. Here the peasants and zamindars expressed their grievances by attacking money lenders and new zamindars, British law court, revenue offices. Much of the strength of the revolt of 1857 lay in Hindu-Muslim unity. Among the soldiers and
The Leaders Centre Delhi Bareilly Kanpur Indian Leader(s) Bahadur Shah II Zafar and Bakht Khan Khan Bahadur Khan 1. Nana Saheb [adopted son of BajiRao II] 2.Tantia Tope [accountant of Nana Saheb] 3. Azeem Ullah Khan Lucknow Jhansi Faizabad Allahabad Jagdishpur (Bihar) Patna Begum Hazrat Mahal, mother of Birjis Qadar Rani LaxmiBai Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah (Leader of Wahabi movement) Liyaqat Ali Kunwar Singh and Amar Singh Maulvi Pir Ali (leader of Wahabi movement)
DELHI On 12 th May 1857, Delhi was seized by rebels. Bahadur Shah II was persuaded to support. Loss of Delhi was a prestige loss for British. On 14 th September 1857, British attacked. On 20 th September 1857, British regained Delhi. Bahadur Shah & Zeenat Mahal fled to Humayun s tomb. But were followed & captured by General Hudson. 3 sons killed & the king & queen exiled to Rangoon. The king died in 1862.
Bahadur Shah II He was angered by the assertion of authority by the leaders of the sepoys. He vacillated between the desire to reign as Emperor and the desire to save skin in case the Revolt was crushed by the British. his His position was also undermined by his favorite Queen Zeenat Mahal and his sons who carried on intrigues with the enemy. His weak personality Old age Lack of qualities of leadership
OUDH (LUCKNOW) The Nawab of Oudh exiled to Calcutta. But his wife Begum Hazrat Mahal and 11 year old son continued to live in Oudh but in very poor condition. The revolt broke out on 4 th June 1857. Henry Lawrence, the British Resident, with some Europeans with some hundred sepoys took refuge in a Residency. Begum seized Residency and killed Henry & some others. In November, Sir Colin Campbell (Commander-in-Chief) attacked with Gorkha regiment. In March 1858, the city was finally recaptured. The rebels driven to Nepal border to die in bad climate or captured by Gorkhas.
Kanpur Nana Sahib, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao was proclaimed the Peshwa. He led the revolt in Kanpur with Tantia Tope, his assistant. Declared himself to be Zafar s governor. After a fierce battle, General Sir Hugh Wheeler surrendered on 27 th June 1857. Nana Saheb assured safe passage of British to Allahabad. Angry Indians killed the passing British citizens. On 6 th December 1857 General Campbell occupied Kanpur. Nana fled to Nepal and Tantia joined Rani Laxmibai.
JHANSI & GWALIOR In June 1857, the troops at Jhansi revolted Rani Laxmibai (widow of Raja Gangadhar Rao) declared ruler. On 3 rd April 1858, Sir Hugh Rose recaptured Jhansi. She escaped to Kalpi (near Gwalior) where Tantia joined her after Kanpur was lost. Both marched to Gwalior. Sir Hugh Rose also marched to Gwalior and captured in June 1858. Rani died fighting bravely. Tantia escaped southward but was betrayed by his friend Man Singh. Tantia was finally hanged.
With reference to the revolt of the year who of the following was betrayed by friend captured and put to death by the British? (a) Nana Sahib (b) Kunwar Singh (c) Khan Bahadur Khan (d) Tatya Tope Answer: d
He was a native of Madras and had moved to Faizabad in the north where he fought a stiff battle against the British troops. At Bareilly, Khan Bahadur, a descendant of the former ruler of Rohilkhand, was placed in command. Not enthusiastic about the pension being granted by the British, he organized an army of 40,000 soldiers and offered stiff resistance to the British. In Bihar, the revolt was led by Kunwar Singh, the zamindar of Jagdishpur. An old man in his seventies, he nursed a grudge against the British who had deprived him of his estates. He unhesitatingly joined the sepoys when they reached Arrah from Dinapore. Maulvi Ahmadullah of Faizabad was another outstanding leader of the revolt.
The Direct Results The Revolt of 1857 exposed the danger involved in allowing a commercial organization to rule over a country. Consequently, the British Parliament by an Act transferred the control of the Indian government from the East India Company to the British Crown. The said Act passed on 2 August, 1858, was known as the Act for the Better Government of India or the Government of India Act, 1858. Queen Victoria, by a Proclamation announced on 1 November, 1858, directly assumed the responsibility of the Indian administration in her own hands. And it was in accordance with the Queen's Proclamation that the honorific title of Viceroy (Crown's personal representative )was added to the Governor-General of India. The supreme executive and legislative authority in India henceforth came to be called the 'Governor- General and the Viceroy'. Lord Canning, so far known as the Governor-General of India, also became the 1 st Viceroy of the country.
Continued In her Proclamation, Queen Victoria also announced certain changes in the governmental policy to be pursued by the British in India. Secretary of State of India appointed with a council of 15 members to assist him. The Revolt of 1857 led to an extensive reorganization of the army and the civil administration. It must, however, be remembered that in spite of all these bold theoretical statements hardly any change occurred in the basic exploitative nature of the British rule in India.
The Government of India Act 1858 Company s territories were to be vested in the Queen and be governed by her. While authority over India had previously been wielded by the Directors of the Company and the Board of Control, now this power was to be exercised by a Secretary of State for India aided by a Council. The Secretary of State was a member of the British Cabinet and as such was responsible to Parliament. Thus ultimate power over India remained with Parliament. The Crown was empowered to appoint a governor general & governor of presidencies. Provision created for Indian Civil Services under the Secretary of State All property of East India Company were transferred to the Crown
Victoria s Proclamation Queen Victoria Proclaimed that No state would be annexed. No more intervention in religious matters. No conversion in religion by force. No discrimination in recruitment of Army Services. Note Victoria became the Empress of India not in 1858 but in 1876.
What was/were the object/objects of Queen Victoria s Proclamation (1858)? (2014) 1)To disclaim any intention to annex Indian States 2)To place the Indian administration under the British Crown 3) To regulate East India Company s trade with India Select the correct answer using the code given below. a)1 and 2 only b) 2 only c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 Ans a
The Indirect Results The Revolt further widened the difference between the ruler and the ruled. During the post-revolt years the British rulers, in order to maintain their supremacy in India, deliberately followed a policy of communal disharmony (the Divide & Rule policy). The seed of communal disharmony planted by the English in India sprouted like a poison tree, and led to the partition of India 90 years later. Although the British government in India did not pursue a policy of territorial expansion in India during the post-1857 days, the period was yet marked by a new era of economic exploitation by the British in India. From now on the British pursued a policy of opposing the educated middle class and supporting the landlords and the native princes.
Measures Adopted by the British After 1857 Appease certain sections of Indian Society the divide and rule policy The British government decided not to interfere in the matter of religion of Indians. This derailed the socio-religious reforms by government
trategic changes in the army The proportion of Europeans to Indians in the army was raised and fixed at one to two in the Bengal army and two to five in the Madras and Bombay armies The older policy of excluding Indians from the officer corps was strictly maintained. All sensitive posts were reserved only for the Europeans European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions Caste based battalions were raised - new units recruited from castes so far underutilised by the British & from the minority so-called "Martial Races", such as the Sikhs & the Gurkhas. Newspapers, journals, & nationalist publications were prevented from reaching the
Reasons for Failure British forces were better equipped with technology and arms. Limited territorial spread :The revolt didn t spread to entire country. The southern and western parts of India remained more or less unaffected. Lack of complete nationalism- Sindhias, Holkars, Nizam & others actively helped the British. Certain classes and groups did not join and, in fact, worked against the revolt. Big zamindars acted as "breakwaters to storm"; even Awadh tahasildars backed off once promises of land restitution were spelt out. Moneylenders and merchants suffered the wrath of the mutineers badly and anyway saw their class interests better protected under British patronage.
Continued Lack of coordination between sepoys, peasants, zamindars and other classes. The rebel units did not have a common plan of action, or authoritative heads, or centralized leadership. Sepoys were also poorly organized. The sepoys were also ill-disciplined sometimes behaved more like a riotous mob than a disciplined army. No vision for the post mutiny institutions & the leaders didn t have any forward looking program. Modern educated Indians viewed this revolt as backward looking, and mistakenly hoped the British would usher in an era of modernization. By one estimate, not more than one-fourth of the total area and not more than onetenth of the total population was affected.
Important Books on the Revolt Book The First Indian War of Independence-1857-59 Rebellion, 1857 : A Symposium The Sepoy Mutiny & the rebellion of 1857 Author Karl Marx P.C. Joshi R.C. Mazumdar 1857 S.N. Sen Causes of Indian Revolt The First War of Indian Independence Saiyed Ahmad Khan V.D. Savarkar
On the whole, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that so-called First National War of Independence is neither First, nor National, nor a war of independence. - R.C. Majumadar
Sepoy Mutiny or 1 st War of Indian Independence? Not just a Sepoy Mutiny - it was not just confined to the sepoys or soldiers, but was much broader in base. The civilian population, aristocracy, peasants, religious leaders played active role in the revolt. Not completely the First War of Independence India was merely a geographical term then; leaders fought for their own personal reasons to get back what they had lost; there was no broad vision of a unified India. South India remained more or less unaffected. Also, the war was won bythe British through the support ofindians. Therefore, the exact nature of the revolt was somewhat between these extreme views.