THE CRUSADES: WHEN THE CROSS TURNED INTO A SWORD Looking In The Rearview As The Church Drives Forward Lesson 7: When Is A Holy War Holy? I. What Were The s? John Hannah describes the s as describing those military endeavors by westerners between 1095 and 1291 to arrest the threat of the expansionist Ottoman Empire in the eastern Mediterranean. Most particularly, it was an attempt to wrestle control of the Holy Lands from Islamic control and establish a Christian kingdom there. (The Kregel Pictorial Guide to Church History: Vol 3 The Triumph of the Church, A.D. 500-1500, p. 18) The s involved nine military campaigns in an effort to regain the Holy Land for Christianity. Urban II called it the from the Latin word crux (meaning cross ). Volunteers would be called crusaders because they would bear the emblem of the cross II. What Were The Reasons For A Holy War? A. Reclaim Jerusalem Jerusalem is the home to three major religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam The Jews believe it was given to them by God through Abraham s Covenant The Christians recognize Jerusalem as the place of Christ s death and resurrection The Muslims cite Jerusalem as the location where Muhammad ascended to heaven Jerusalem was Islam s 3 rd holiest city (Mecca and Medina were 1 & 2) In 600, Islam conquered the Holy Land and controlled it for several centuries In 1095, Pope Urban II called for volunteers to militarily regain Jerusalem B. Self-Protection: To Fight Off Muslim Invasions The Ottoman or Seljuk Turks were invading the Eastern empire Romanus, emperor of Byzantium, lost the battle of Manikert (1071) Islam takes Nicaea, near Constantinople (1092) Later, Alexius, Romanus successor as emperor of the East, asked Rome for assistance against the Muslims in 1188 C. Politics: The East and the West had great tension for centuries 1
The Great Schism was fresh in the minds of Christian Europe (1054) Pope Urban II also thought the Eastern church would become favorable to the West if they were to help them with the pressing Muslim invasion Urban raised this mend at the Council of Bari in 1098 hoping to regain an ecumenical unity D. Purification: Muslims wanted to spread Islam by sword Christians wanted to have the freedom to worship and advance Christianity The Muslims were perceived as an evil people contaminating the Holy Land III. IV. How Would The Pope Raise And Motivate Troops For A Holy War? The church did not have an official military, though there were different military orders within the church Pope Urban II preached a crusade at Clermont (1095) calling for war He called peasants to be soldiers urging them towards a duty for the church and a meritorious act before God that would help them gain heaven The First Lateran Council (1123) granted full absolution of sin for those who died in battle and the church would protect and provide for their survivors The crusaders were mostly volunteers The crusaders were promised by the pope eternal life if they died in combat against non- Christians on the way to Jerusalem or if they made it to Jerusalem This promise of eternal was called a plenary indulgence a full remission for all their sins, even those that went unrepented This is eerily similar to the Muslim promise of eternal life for martyrdom in a Jihad against all those who are unbelievers (infidels) towards Islam A monk-turned-knight by the name of Guibert of Nogent would be among the first to go. He was motivated as a penitent. Guibert was willing to give his life out of his sacrificial love to fight against the evil enemy, the Muslims. What Happened In The Different Campaigns? A. The First To Jerusalem (1095-1099) 1. The Charge Urban II preached against the Muslims at the synod of Clermont in November, 1095. The Seljuk Turks and were more fanatical and brutal (Cairns, p. 220) than the Arabs they replaced. Urban saw the as a response to Alexius (Emperor of Constantinople) appeal for aid from the Western Church in the Eastern Empire. But Urban was more focused on destroying the Arabs than rescuing the East. After his speech, the crowd yelled God wills it. 2
It took the European army of peasants, two years of traveling in the desert before they reached Jerusalem Walter Sans Avoir (a.k.a. Walter the Penniless ) raised mostly French peasants to lead off the charge in 1096 through preaching o They plundered their way through Hungary Peter the Hermit led a second wave of mostly Germanic peasants. They were unorganized and untrained and were easily killed or captured into slavery The Byzantines also scrambled up some troops into Asia Minor to battle the Turks Nobles from France, Belgium and Morman Italy led a more organized wave. They arrived in Constantinple (Spring, 1097), took Nicaea, then Antioch (Spring, 1098). Guibert of Nogent writes in his autobiography that from almost every part of the West, innumerable armies headed to Jerusalem Other nobles led troops including: o Raymond of Toulouse fought Muslims in Spain o Hugh of Vermandois, younger son of King Henry I of France, was hoping for a new settlement with a lack of inheritance awaiting him in France o Godfrey of Bouillon and his younger brother, Baldwin, also led troops hoping to claim property in or near the Holy Land o Robert of Normandy, eldest son of William the Conqueror, led troops with Stephen of Blois and Robert of Flanders 2. The Confusion Constantinople didn t quite know what to make of all these Western armies. The eastern emperor required an oath of allegiance from Godfrey, because they would have taken the land in the East, if opportunity presented itself 3. The Bloodshed The hope of fighting for eternal life gave the crusader an aggressive posture towards all non-christians especially Muslims and Jews En route to Jerusalem, these Christians would slaughter thousands of non-christians Jews and Muslims. There were entire Jewish communities that would be eradicated. Most of the peasant crusaders died David Horton: The armies moved more or less at the same time across Asia Minor in 1097, to encounter I the Turks a formidable and quite unfamiliar style of fighting. The use of Arab horses and light swords, which could be used one handed from horseback to slash an enemy on the gallop, set a grave disadvantage the slow and cumbersome Western armies. They were experienced in the kind of battle where opposing sides lined up and charged at one another, and where there was time to stand one s ground and wield a sword with both hands. 3
4. The Siege (June, 1099) They surrounded Jerusalem for 2 months in their siege of the city. Siege = a military blockade that will cut off vital supplies to a city making them weak through attrition until they could effectively attack them The Muslim occupants would eventually crumble and the crusaders entered the city slaughtering all who were not Christian (men, women and children). The siege method helped the Westerners be victorious in Jerusalem The crusaders built their r Castles along the Mediterranean The Islamic incursion was halted, Jerusalem was returned and Rome was set up to influence Palestine The armies felt a sense of spiritual triumph an overwhelming feeling that God was on their side This would be the only successful crusade in regaining Jerusalem. The rest of the crusades would fail. Constantinpole was relieved from the pressure from the Muslims. The Knights Templars and Hospitallers were established to protect and assist pilgrims and defend against the Muslims. B. The Second (1147-1148) The fall of Edessa in 1144 and the threat to northeastern Jerusalem by the Muslims led to the Second Bernard of Clairvaux, though a mystic more interested in devotion and holiness, acquiesced to the need to preach for the second crusade under the influence of Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny Co-led by the king of France and the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, they would contend against Saladin, the Muslim leader. Peter the Venerable even translated the Qur an into Latin so the West could understand the religious motivations of the Muslims There were so many people responding to Bernard, that there were not enough cloth crosses to be sewn into their clothing The Second was a massive defeat Instead of concentrating on liberating Edessa, they got sidetracked attacking Damascus, that weakened their forces Taking his cue from Augustine s City of God, Bernard answered the defeated masses that God would sometimes allow his people to suffer defeat because God had something greater in eternity in His sovereign plan C. The Third (1189-1192) Saladin retakes Jerusalem in 1187 The big boys got involved this time Frederick Barbarossa (emperor of Germany), Philip Augustus (king of France) and Henry II (king of England) But the big boys had big egos and their political rivalry led to a weak and 4
confused force Frederick accidentally drowned while headed to Palestine. Richard failed to take Jerusalem, but did negotiate an agreement with Saladin to allow Christian pilgrims to have peaceful access to Jerusalem. In Richard the Lion-Heart, Saladin found a worthy military opponent, who thwarted his Muslim armies time and again. Saladin found Richard pleasant, upright, magnanimous, and excellent. Once when Richard contracted a serious fever, Saladin sent him peaches and pears, along with ice from the top of Mount Hermon 100 miles away. Eventually stalemated, Richard reluctantly agreed to a three-year truce. (Christian History Magazine, The s, Issue #40, p. 19) D. The Fourth (1200-1204) Innocent III responded to the failure of the Third by preaching for a Fourth. The Venetian crusaders decided to sack Constantinople on the way to Jerusalem in an effort to gain their ships for military transport and to capture Egypt for a military base. During the Fourth (1202 1204), Christians attacked other Christians. The crusaders intended to fight Muslims in Egypt but got sidetracked and destroyed the great Eastern Christian capital of Constantinople. ((Christian History Magazine, The s, Issue #40, p. 1) When the Western army crushed the Eastern capital in 1204, then sacked, pillaged and raped the people they were once in conflict with, then supposed to help against the Muslims, was considered the ultimate betrayal. The result was that the Greek Orthodox Church and the Eastern Empire were again subject to the pope (from 1204 to 1261), after being independent for 150 years. Hatred between the Eastern and Western churches intensified. E. The Fifth (1217-1221) Francis of Assisi joined the Fifth which ended in defeat Peace-loving Francis of Assisi joined the Fifth in Egypt, though he did not fight. He risked his life crossing enemy lines to preach to Muslim sultan Malik-al-Kamil. The sultan did not convert, but he offered Francis riches (declined) and had him escorted back to the Christian camp. (Christian History Magazine, The s, Issue #40, p. 1) F. The Sixth (1228-1229) Frederick II gained some victory in Jerusalem during the Sixth. He negotiated a treaty where Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazarath and a sea path came under Christian control, while the Muslims maintained the Mosque of Omar. The territories would later fall to the Saracens (who replaced the Seljuk Turks). G. The Children s (1212) Led by two teenagers, Stephen and Nicholas, they brought children from France and Germany across southern Europe to Italy. They believed their purity would bring military success than the sinful adult armies, who failed. Most perished in the journey and the rest were sold into slavery in Egypt. 5
First Second Third Fourth Children s s Fifth Sixth Seventh Dates Chief Motivators 1095-1099 1147-1148 1189-1192 1200-1204 Urban II Peter the Hermit Bernard of Clairvaux Eugene III Alexander III Innocent II 1212 Nicholas of Cologne Stephen of Cloyes 1219-1221 Honorius II Notable Participants Walter the Penniless Peter the Hermit Raymund of Toulouse Godfrey Tancred Robert of Normandy Konrad III Louis VII Frederick Barbarossa Philip Augustus Richard I Thibaut of Champagne Louis of Blois Baldwin of Flanders Simon de Montfort Enrico Dandolo William of Holland John of Brienne The s Goal Liberate Jerusalem from the Turks Retake Edessa from Turks Retake Jerusalem from Saladin and the Saracens Undermine Saracen power by invading Egypt Supernatural conquest of Holy Land by the pure in heart Undermine Saracen power by invading Egypt 1229 Frederick II Regain Jerusalem 1248 Louis IX Relief of Holy Land through invasion of Egypt Results Peter the Hermit led a horde of peasants toward the Holy Land but most died or were slaughtered en route. rs captured Nicea, Antioch, Edessa, Jerusalem; established feudal r kingdoms. Mistrust between Western rs and Eastern guides led to decimation of r army; attempt to take Damascus failed Frederick drowned; Philip returned home; Richard captured Acre and Joppa, made treaty with Saladin, and was captured and imprisoned in Austria on the way home Christian city of Zara was sacked to repay Venice for transportation; for this the rs were excommunicated; then they sacked Constantinople Most of the children were drowned at sea, sold into slavery, or slaughtered rs succeeded in taking Damietta in Egypt, but soon lost it again rs made treaty with Sultan, giving Frederick control of Jerusalem; Frederick was excommunicated for this rs were defeated in Egypt (John Walton, Chronological and Background Charts of Church History, Zondervan, 2005, Chart 38) 6
V. The End Of The s After almost 300 years of great bloodshed, the s ended when the crusaders retreated at Akko, the last western fortress city, in 1291 The Muslims were slow, but methodical, in regaining control of the Holy Land The Europeans lost interest in the Holy Land after the last defeat and the s ended o Hannah: Though the rs failed to create a permanent Christian presence in Palestine, abandoned fortresses and broken walls bearing their testimony, the Islamic threat was curtailed. It was the grand era of the knight with shining lances, crossbows, and iron armor under the white cross of the Hospitallers or the red cross of the Templars who protected the Latin kingdom. On the negative side, the indulgence system and penitentialism increasingly obscured the important truth of salvation apart from human merit. (p. 19) Feudalism was weakened as many nobles and knights never returned from the s or sold their land to raise money for the s. The middle-class would purchase the land. The Kings were strengthened as they did not have to contend with as many feudal lords, who were independent from centralized government. The power of the Popes was weakened as the military campaigns heightened national pride which led to a feeling of more power over the pope. Dealings with the Muslims took on more of negotiating methods, rather than military. People returning from the s enjoyed products from the East which led to trade in luxury products from the East. This would lead to the economic basis for the Italian art Renaissance. Arabic education, science and literature would also find a way into western Europe and synthesized with Christian world views. The Muslim Conquest and the s A Comparison Area of Comparison Muslim Conquest s Dates 633-732 1095-1291 Initiation Death of Muhammad Council of Clermont Termination Battle of Tours Fall of Acre Motivation Inducements Offered Treatment of Enemies Results They desired to spread the true faith among the infidels by means of Jihad, or Holy War. Immediate entrance to Paradise promised to those who die in Jihad Pagans were required to convert or die; Jews and Christians were allowed to keep their religions but were required to pay tribute and refrain from proselytizing or public religions display. Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Egypt, North Africa, Spain were subjugated; Greek learning was preserved through the Dark Ages. They sought to defend pilgrims and the glory of God and to recapture the holy places of Christendom from the infidel Turks. Plenary indulgence offered forgiveness of sins past, present, and future; for those who died, immediate entrance into heaven; for all others, forgiveness of debts and freedom from taxation. Conquered Muslims were indiscriminately put to the sword; inhabitants of Jewish ghettos were slaughtered. No permanent territorial gains were made; classical Greek and Roman cultures were rediscovered; there was increased enmity between Eastern and Western churches and among Christians, Jews, and Muslims (John Walton, Chronological and Background Charts of Church History, Zondervan, 2005, Chart 39) 7
Reflection: How Could Christians Do Something Like This? 1. Muslims were a political, economic and religious threat. The Seljek Turks were dangerously fanatical Islam sought to convert with the threat of sword They were taking over lands in the Eastern Empire and forcing them to convert to Muslim rule The Christians also entered the Holy Land upon invitation 2. The Roman Catholic Church was militarily aggressive in the 11 th century. The new power of the popes over the governments emboldened reforms. God, as the Father of the universe, gave propulsion to the notion of universal Christian sovereignty Thus, Muslim invasion into the Holy Land and the Eastern Empire was a great threat to universal Christian sovereignty The hope was to also unite the divided Western and Eastern factions Pope Urban, in his speech urging the s, called himself the spiritual ruler of the whole world 3. Europe s economic revitalization positioned them with the confident attitude to defy Muslim invasions. Roads and ports enabled new markets in Europe. Muslim dominance in the West was an economic threat. When seeing the violent rampage of the Muslims, the West thought How could they? Religious and economic zeal led to racial and religious prejudice Conclusion: The Sword Of War There are 235 references to war in the Scriptures Soldiers are frequently mentioned in favorable light David, Roman Centurion (Mt 8), Cornelius (Acts 10), soldier who repents with John the Baptist (Lk 3:14) 1 st war mentioned in the Bible Elam vs. Sodom & Gomorrah (Gen 14) Abram had to use force of 300 men to rescue Lot from captivity (Gen 14:14-15) Battles: Joshua 14; Judges 15; Saul 7; David 11; Divided Kingdom Judah (29) & Israel (28) Revelation many battles including Gog & Magog and Armageddon Joshua conducted warfare to establish land and clear out idolatrous inhabitants Judges mostly defensive wars against invaders and captors David infantry Solomon introduce calvary and chariots (1 Kings 4:26; 10:26) Maccabean wars (166-134 BC) Jews use guerilla tactics sucessfully against powerful Greek calvary and elephant corps (2 Macc 3:2,15) 1. God s View Of War a. God Wages A Spiritual War Against Sin (James 4:4; Eph 6:12) 8
James 4:1-2 Where do wars and fights come from among you? Do they not come from your desires for pleasure that war in your members? You lust and do not have. You murder and covet and cannot obtain. You fight and war. Ephesians 6:12 For we do not wrestle against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this age, against spiritual hosts of wickedness in the heavenly places. b. God Wages A Physical War Against Sinners (Dt 28:25; Jer 25:8-9, Rev 19:11-19) Deuteronomy 28:25 The LORD will cause you to be defeated before your enemies Jeremiah 25:8-9 Therefore thus says the LORD of hosts: Because you have not heard My words, behold, I will send and take all the families of the north, says the LORD, and Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon, My servant, and will bring them against this land, against its inhabitants, and against these nations all around, and will utterly destroy them, and make them an astonishment, a hissing, and perpetual desolations. Revelation 19:11,14-15,19 11 Now I saw heaven opened, and behold, a white horse. And He who sat on him was called Faithful and True, and in righteousness He judges and makes war. 14 And the armies in heaven, clothed in fine linen, white and clean, followed Him on white horses. 15 Now out of His mouth goes a sharp sword, that with it He should strike the nations. And He Himself will rule them with a rod of iron. He Himself treads the winepress of the fierceness and wrath of Almighty God. 19 And I saw the beast, the kings of the earth, and their armies, gathered together to make war against Him who sat on the horse and against His army. 2. Man s View Of War a. No War (Pacifism) - some Christians take a pacifist position where they would never bear arms even if our country was at risk this is not a dominant position in the church but it is significant J.J. Davis in Evangelical Ethics: o Hippolytus (170-236AD) condemned Christians in military service o Tertullian rejected all forms of military o Waldensese in 12 th century condemned war for taking human life o in the Reformation, the Swiss Brethren and Mennonites and eventually the Quakers condemned all wars o Tolstoy and Gandhi are also advocates b. Any War (Activism) - some Christians will fight for any cause right or wrong My country right or wrong ie/ Christian soldiers justified following Hitler and his murderous ways because of Romans 13:1-7 9
the government is to do good (v.3), not evil c. Just War (Selectivism) All wars are evil, but not everyone s involvement in war is evil (Sproul) there are those on offense and those on defense unjust for someone to be the aggressor in attacking borders and murdering people aggression is equated with murder yet it is just to defend yourself from this attack Does the civil magistrate, within the geographical boundaries of his own domain, have the right or the responsibility to use force to resist an aggressor or to protect his own people from being victims to hostile and aggressive acts? (Sproul) Many crusaders were also motivated by the honor of knighthood. The clearest portrait of the ideal knight came from English philosopher John of Salisbury, who wrote, What is the office of the duly ordained soldiery? To defend the church, to assail infidelity, to venerate the priesthood, to protect the poor from injuries,... to pour out their blood for their brothers... and, if need be, to lay down their lives. The high praises of God are in their throats, and two-edged swords are in their hands. (Christian History Magazine, The s, Issue #40, p. 14) Should our country attack another country to expand our borders NO Should our country defend itself from someone trying to intrude ours YES Q: Is the U.S. starting the war? NO. The war against us started on September 11 th. The government has information that believes Iraq is linked to it. Q: Do we have the right to defend ourselves? David warred to protect his people from marauders, purify the land from idolatrous influences, carry out the promises of God and bring peace Criteria for a Just War (Norman Geisler, Christian Ethics, pp. 233ff) 1) A war in defense of the innocent is just Gen 14 Abraham fought to protect the innocent 2) Wars fought to execute justice are just 3) A just war must be fought by the government (Rom 13:4) 4) A just war must be fought justly (Dt 20:19-20) Deuteronomy 20:19-20 When you besiege a city for a long time, while making war against it to take it, you shall not destroy its trees by wielding an ax against them; if you can eat of them, do not cut them down to use in the siege, 10
for the tree of the field is man s food. Only the trees which you know are not trees for food you may destroy and cut down, to build siegeworks against the city that makes war with you, until it is subdued. Discussion: 1. Were the s a just war? What alternatives could there have been? 2. How might this apply to the Middle East crisis where the Jews and Arabs still contend over Jersualem and the land of Israel? Should the U.S. defend Israel s right to exist in their borders? Do the Muslims have the right to exist in Palestine? 3. How could/would the Middle East crisis ever be solved (biblically)? 4. The s have left a 1,000 year permanent stain in the relationship between Christians and Muslims. Both committed atrocities towards each other. How could resentment from the s be repaired? How do we respond to a Muslim friend who cites the wrong done by Christians in the s as a reason to not hear the Gospel? 11