Debtor of the mighty Caesar belonged to an ancient, though politically insignificant, family. Instead of relying on family relations, he trusted in heretofore unprecedented amounts of money to further his career. By borrowing the money from the most powerful politicians of his day, he ensured that they would support his political career, if nothing else to get their money back with interest.
01 Debtor of the mighty The gens Julia Caius Iulius Caesar, who was to become one of the most famous dictators of all time, was born into the gens Julia. This ancient Patrician family produced only few consuls in the 5th and early 4th century before slowly fading into political obscurity. Bust of Caius Iulius Caesar, Altes Museum, Berlin. Photo: Wikicommons / Louis le Grand / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bysa/3.0/deed.en
02 Debtor of the mighty Playing along but not the first fiddle The time of Iulius Caesar hardly knew any significant members of the gens Julia. One major reason for this development was the fact that the last Julian consul had sided with Marius. After losing the civil war against Sulla, this was unfortunately the wrong side to be on. Speaking of which, Marius had also been married to Iulia, Caesar s paternal aunt. Denarius of L. Iulius, 101. Obverse: Roma. Reverse: Victoria in biga.
03 Debtor of the mighty Aeneas Rome Caesar Caius Iulius Caesar nevertheless prided himself on his lineage. Even though distinguished military leaders or politicians were largely absent from the family tree, he still had an ace up his sleeve. According to legend, the family directly descended from the son of Aeneas, whom the Greeks called Ascanius, the Romans Iulus. This coin shows how Aeneas rescues his father Anchises and the sacred Trojan palladium from the flames. The wooden statue would later find a new home in the Roman Temple of Vesta. Denarius of C. Iulius Caesar, 47/6. Obverse: Venus. Reverse: Aeneas carrying his father Anchises and the Palladium.
04 Debtor of the mighty Back to the roots Through the connection with Aeneas, Caesar could trace back his roots to the great Greek epics. It was Roman poet Virgil who would put down the fall of Ilion in verse, the epic that would become the Romans national poem. The procession of the Trojan horse in Troy. Painting by Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo, 1760. National Gallery, London. Source:
05 Debtor of the mighty Aeneas: Mythical hero, divine son Caesar s legendary family history was particularly interesting with regard to the fact that Aeneas was the son of Aphrodite, Greek counterpart to the Roman goddess Venus. Even as noname politician at the beginning of his career, this rendered Caesar superior to the big names in Roman politics. After all, Sulla had merely been a favourite of Venus, not her descendant. Flight from Troy. Painting by Federico Barocci, 1598. Galleria Borghese, Rome. Source: Wikicommons / Web Gallery of Art/Wetman.
06 Debtor of the mighty Climbing the ladder of fame Caesar s political career did not really take off until 69 BC. In rapid succession, he became quaestor and, in 65, aedile. In this office, Caesar sponsored circus games of spectacular scope. This only became possible by borrowing large amounts of money, exceptionally large amounts of money. Pollice Verso, painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1872. Phoenix Art Museum. Source: Wikicommons / WarX/Manuel Strehl / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en
07 Debtor of the mighty Money paves the way That in itself was not unusual. All aediles relied on borrowed money. If anything, the amount of money may have been somewhat unusual. What was really new though was the strategy Caesar devised for the elections of the Pontifex Maximus. Instead of bribing the older members of the college of pontiffs into renouncing their candidatures, he spent unprecedented amounts of money on bribing the electorate. With success: Caesar was elected despite all expectations.what the Pontifex Maximus lacked in political power, he more than made up for in religious power: While officials were re-elected annually, the high priest was elected for life. No wonder that on his coins Caesar time and again depicted himself with items specifically linked to priestly duties. Denarius of C. Iulius Caesar, 49/8. Obverse: Priestly utensils. Reverse: Elephant trampling down on snake.
08 Debtor of the mighty Money from a dubious source Caesar s main creditor was Marcus Licinius Crassus, the richest man in Rome. Among the more conservative members of Roman society, he had a decidedly bad reputation. The senators were as appreciative of his money as they were suspicious of its doubtful entrepreneurial origins and Crassus was an exceptionally innovative entrepreneur. Portrait, discovered in the Licinia family tomb in Rome, possibly associated with Marcus Licinius Crassus. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen. Photo: Wikicommons / Diagram Lajard / http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.de
09 Debtor of the mighty Caesar and the Catiline conspiracy Caesar, who tended to disagree with the general Roman trend, also did so in the Catiline conspiracy. Until this day, no light has been shed on the exact details of this conspiracy if it ever existed. Be that as it may, Caius Iulius Caesar was the only senator to speak up for Catiline and against the death penalty. Considering his inferior rank at the time of the conspiracy this constituted a scandal. However, his speech was so convincing that he would have almost succeeded in his cause, had it not been for Cato the Younger, who understood himself as the voice and moral conscience of the younger reactionaries.in this affair, Caesar had made more than one bitter enemy. Cicero denouncing Catiline. Historicising fresco by Cesare Maccari, 1888. Villa Madama, Rome. Photo: Wikicommons.
10 Debtor of the mighty All thanks to a guarantor In 61 BC, Caesar s enemies attempted to keep the newly appointed praetor from visiting his province Hispania Ulterior by prompting his creditors to call in their money immediately. The debt is estimated at 6 million denarii, which roughly corresponds to a tenth of Rome s annual income. The intention behind this move was clearly political because every Roman knew that a debtor would only be able to pay back the money after returning from his province. But Caesar was lucky. His biggest creditor, Marcus Licinius Crassus, supported him. Maybe because he wanted his money back. Maybe because he had recognised his debtor s political potential. Crassus vouched for Caesar and Caesar travelled to Spain. Map of the Roman provinces in Hispania. Source: Wikicommons.
11 Debtor of the mighty Lusitania involuntarily pays Caesar s debts The obvious reason for Caesar s expedition to Spain was of course money. And money could only be won in a lucrative war. This time, the Lusitanians were the victims. They had large resources of silver and gold. By the time Caesar s term in office ended, Lusitania had become part of the Roman Republic. And Caesar had lined his pockets so thoroughly that he never suffered from financial worries again. The Roman province of Lusitania. Source: Wikicommons / Alexandre Vigo / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.de
12 Debtor of the mighty Triumvirate Pompey On his return to Rome, Caesar had to confront the fact that most of the senate was working against him. He had broken too many rules. His solution to the problem was ganging up on the senate with other outsiders, the rich Crassus, who would have loved to lead a big military campaign someday, and military commander Pompey. The latter had won considerable victories but was now at a loss to provide for his veterans. Caesar promised them his support in exchange for theirs, including that of their respective clients, for his election as consul. Denarius of Cn. Pompeius Magnus. 49. Obverse: Hermaphrodite s bust.the reverse alludes to Pompey s victories: The dolphin stands for his war against the pirates, while the eagle symbolises Jove, who granted him the victories. The sceptre symbolises rule.
13 Debtor of the mighty New paths to old power Already in Antiquity, people were aware that Caesar deviated from the well-trodden path to achieve his goals. Plutarch for instance wrote about him: He was unsparing in his outlays of money, and was thought to be purchasing a transient and short-lived fame at a great price, though in reality he was buying things of the highest value at a small price. We are told, accordingly, that before he entered upon any public office he was thirteen hundred talents in debt. Again, during his aedileship, he furnished three hundred and twenty pairs of gladiators, and by lavish provision besides for theatrical performances, processions, and public banquets, he washed away all memory of the ambitious efforts of his predecessors in the office. By these means he put the people in such a humour that every man of them was seeking out new offices and new honours with which to requite him. Plutarch, illustration taken from the French translation of Vitae Parallelae by Jacques Amyot, 1565. Source: Wikicommons.
Creditor of the ambitious Initiating the Gallic Wars made Caesar one of the richest men in Rome. He strategically used the money, lending it to young, ambitious politicians who needed it to advance their careers. Thus, he secured their support in the senate and defied his enemies.
01 Creditor of the ambitious Caesar becomes invincible Caesar knew very well that he had made many enemies with his way of doing politics, which is why he went straight from consul to proconsul. The office of proconsul conferred to its holder legal immunity. Consequently, Caesar could not be prosecuted for actions performed in his previous office. Caius Iulius Caesar, bronze statue at the Via Foro Imperiali, Rome. Photo: Wikicommons / Mharrsch / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.de
02 Creditor of the ambitious Caesar needs more money To replenish his money supplies, Caesar asked for the provinces Gallia Cisalpina, Gallia Narbonensis and Illyria. He knew that the region held enough potential for armed conflict and war. In early 58 BC, Caesar got on his way to his provinces. Roman provinces and local tribes in the area of what today are France and Belgium, late 1st century BC. Source: Wikicommons / Feitscherg / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.de
03 Creditor of the ambitious The domino effect Thanks to the Helvetii, Caesar saw an opportunity to start a war against the Gauls. When the Helvetii tried to migrate to the Atlantic coast due to food shortage, he prevented them from doing so and attacked. The rest was a domino effect. Between 58 and 51/50 BC, Caesar destroyed the Gallic tribes one after the other. This brought Rome tremendous territorial gains and Caesar tremendous wealth. Map of Gaul showing Caesar s campaigns in the year 51 BC. Source: Wikicommons / Cristiano64 / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bysa/3.0/deed.en
04 Creditor of the ambitious (Almost) invincible enemies The tall and broad-shouldered Celts with their unruly blond hair were the one enemy the Romans feared the most, especially for their fearlessness and ferocity in battle. Just like the ancient Greeks they drove into battle on war chariots as you can see here on this coin reverse. Once you defeated an enemy like this, you were invincible. That is the message of this motif, which praises Caesar indirectly but no less memorably. Denarius of L. Hostilius Saserna, 48. Obverse: Gallic warrior. Reverse: Biga with Gallic warrior.
05 Creditor of the ambitious One last battle Towards the end of this war, which turned out to be very successful for Caesar, he nevertheless met with one last unfaltering enemy, Vercingetorix. It took Caesar all his efforts to defeat the Gallic tribes united under Vercingetorix in the Battle of Alesia 52 BC. Vercingetorix throws down his arms at the feet of Julius Caesar. Painting by Lionel Royer, 1899. Musée Crozatier, Le Puys-en-Velay. Source: Wikicommons.
06 Creditor of the ambitious Gold swamps the capital The profit Caesar made by selling tens of thousands of war prisoners was enormous. Added to that was the booty from plundered cities, sanctuaries and tribal treasures. Modern estimates suggest that Caesar s fortune after his Gallic proconsulate was no less than 1.2 million sesterces. Gold flowed to Rome in such large quantities that gold prices in the capital dropped by 25 per cent. Modern sculptures by Reinhard Dachlauer in front of the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. The bull symbolises rising stock prices, the bear falling ones. Photo: Wikicommons / Eva K.
07 Creditor of the ambitious Gold money for Caesar s soldiers As a reward for his legionaries Caesar minted part of the gold into coins like the one you see here. That the gold coins were worth 25 denarii each facilitated the logistics of the disbursal. After all, each common legionary was to receive a premium of 5,000 denarii and each centurion a premium of 10,000 denarii. Aureus of C. Iulius Caesar, 46. Obverse: Female head. Reverse: Priestly utensils.
08 Creditor of the ambitious Debtors aplenty While, not long ago, Caesar had asked for money from Crassus, the successful general was now being asked for money in turn. Caesar strategically employed his fortune for alliance building with friends as well as enemies. The advantage: He could rely on his debtors support in the senate in order to push his own agenda. Caius Iulius Caesar, statue by Nicolas Coustou, 1696. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo: Wikicommons / Marie-Lan Nguyen.
09 Creditor of the ambitious Caesar s investments Caesar s large-scale strategic investments are also topic in his biography The Parallel Lives. Here Plutarch writes: Caesar [ ] now sent his Gallic wealth for all those in public life to draw from in copious streams, and [ ] freed Curio the tribune from many debts, and [ ] gave Paulus the consul fifteen hundred talents [ ]. Plutarch, illustration taken from the French translation of Vitae Parallelae by Jacques Amyot, 1565. Source: Wikicommons.
10 Creditor of the ambitious Caesar obliges the aristocracy During the Gallic Wars Caesar welcomed many young men of noble descent as officers to his ranks, thereby binding their respective families to him. The mint master of this coin, Decimus Iunius Brutus Albinus, came from such a family. He is the addressee of Caesar s famous last words, you too, Brutus. Denarius of D. Iunius Brutus Albinus, 48. Obverse: Mars. Reverse: Gallic trumpets and shields.
11 Creditor of the ambitious Will the plan work out? Do not, however, mistake Decimus Brutus for the leader of the conspiracy that was the considerably older Marcus Iunius Brutus. Brutus and the ghost of Caesar, copperplate engraving by Edward Scriven after a painting by Richard Westall, 1802. Source: Wikicommons.
12 Creditor of the ambitious Exploiting past victories The Gallic Wars became the most prominent theme in the coinage of Caesar and his followers. Take for instance the depiction of a trophy of Gallic weapons: Far from being purely decorative, the motif presented the clever politician as almost invincible leader and favourite of the gods. After all, a victory was considered proof of the leader s close ties to the Roman pantheon. In the civil war, during which this coin was issued, Caesar advertised his position by referring back to his Gallic victories. Denarius of C. Iulius Caesar, 48/7. Obverse: Female head. Reverse: Trophy of Gallic weapons.
13 Creditor of the ambitious A war report from the general himself It certainly was not a coincidence that Caesar s own commentary on the Gallic Wars was published just at the time of his next candidature for consul. Caius Iulius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, 1783 edition. Source: Wikicommons.
14 Creditor of the ambitious Rubicon When Caesar crossed the Rubicon, he did it because his way to the top was irreconcilable with the values and traditions of the longer-established senators. It was a question of the power of money versus the power of family relations. And money would be the winner in this game. Caesar ended the civil war victorious and sole ruler of the Roman Republic. And not even his assassination would change anything about the fact that a return to the old system had become impossible. Caesar crossing the Rubicon. Reproduction of an unknown painting. Source: Wikicommons / Wolpertinger.
Rebellion of the reactionaries Caesar s politics had completely altered the traditional power structures in the senate. Holding high offices below him did not go hand in hand with more political influence as it used to. Decisions were made by Caesar alone. And even those who had helped finance his rise to power felt betrayed.
01 Rebellion of the reactionaries Caesar crosses the Rubicon His victories in Gaul had won Caesar so much influence that he seemed almost overpowering. That made even his former allies uncomfortable. Pompey allied with Caesar s enemies and demanded his return to Rome. Under no circumstances could Caesar let that happen because losing his office meant losing his legal immunity and possible conviction. His enemies had enough on him to arraign him. This, however, was not acceptable for Caesar and irreconcilable with his pride. He turned to his loyal soldiers. In the night from 10 January to 11 January 49, he and his legions crossed the Rubicon, the small river on the border of his province of Gallia Cisalpina and Italy. The civil war had begun. Caesar crossing the Rubicon. Reproduction of an unknown painting. Source: Wikicommons / Wolpertinger.
02 Rebellion of the reactionaries Clementia Caesaris This was not what Pompey had expected. He moved eastwards, where he had many clients. Others, like senator Lucius Domitius and his soldiers, stayed. They tried to defend the city of Corvinum, but it was futile. Caesar s troops were superior. Surprisingly though, Caesar refrained from murdering the defeated optimates in the city. Instead, he offered them to join his ranks. Many took the offer. With his clemency, the famous clementia Caesaris, he brought all those still wavering over to his side. Mercy (clementia) was merely an instrument used by the dictator for propaganda. Denarius of P. Sepullius Macer, 44. Obverse: Temple dedicated to Clementia. Reverse: Horse acrobat. From CNG auction sale, Triton XVI (2013), 908.
03 Rebellion of the reactionaries Clash of the enemies It only took Caesar a few months to bring the western Empire under his control. Meanwhile, Pompey was able to secure the eastern territories and North Africa. The two armies finally met in northern Greece. On 9 August 48, Caesar crushed Pompey s army. Battle of Pharsalus, 48 BC. Source: Wikicommons.
04 Rebellion of the reactionaries Egypt Pompey fled to Egypt. But Pharaoh Ptolemy XIII chose the more promising side. On his arrival in Alexandria, Caesar was greeted by his enemy s cut-off head. Pompey s death. Painting by anonymous painter, 2nd half of 18th century. Musée Magnin, Dijon. Source: Wikicommons.
05 Rebellion of the reactionaries How Caesar met Cleopatra In Egypt, 53-year-old Caesar met Cleopatra, an intelligent young woman of 21 years of age. He installed her as pharaoh. And there was more to come: She also became his lover and mother of his only son Caesarion. Cleopatra before Caesar, painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1866. Source: Wikicommons.
06 Rebellion of the reactionaries Veni, vidi, vici? Even though the Battle of Zela earned him not only a swift victory but also the phrase Veni vidi vici, it still could not win the successful general the respect of the other Roman senators. Iulius Caesar on his triumphal chariot, painting by Andrea Mantegna,
07 Rebellion of the reactionaries Dictator for life After the civil war, there were no serious enemies left in the senate. Caesar staffed all offices with his followers. In December 49, he was proclaimed dictator for ten days, in 44 dictator for life. He was even offered the royal diadem, which he rejected. Caesar refuses the diadem, illustration from John Clark Ridpath s History of the World, (1894). Source: Wikicommons.
08 Rebellion of the reactionaries The old powers are dead Caesar introduced a new calendar and initiated large-scale projects for buildings and settlements. But no matter what he did, there was one thing he just could not do: Win the respect and approval of the aristocracy. This was largely due to the problem that high offices had lost their appeal. Even highranking officials could not make an impact anymore as Caesar was the de facto autocrat. Caesar memorial, Bonn (Germany). Photo: Wikicommons / Jotquadrat / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.de
09 Rebellion of the reactionaries Cheaper by the dozen Caesar had become untouchable. He amassed honours and privileges. The laurel wreath on the Sella Curulis perhaps alludes to his privilege of sitting in between the two consuls during sessions of the senate. Denarius of C. Considius Paetus, 46. Obverse: Apollo. Reverse: Sella Curulis, Caesar s laurel wreath on top.
10 Rebellion of the reactionaries Caesar everywhere On top of losing their political power, angry senators were confronted with Caesar wherever they went. One statue of him was put up next to the memorials of the seven kings of Rome. Another one in the Temple of Jupiter, bearing the inscription To the invincible god. An ivory statue of Caesar became part of every procession held in honour of the gods. The old elites were furious. Statue of Iulius Caesar, Via dei Fori Imperiali, Rome. Photo: Wikicommons / Vassil.
11 Rebellion of the reactionaries Enough! Perhaps this one, last privilege was the straw that broke the camel s back. Since 13 February 44, Caesar was authorised to mint his effigy on coins. This was unheard-of in Rome, this was unthinkable. Plus, Caesar was wearing a sort of crown on these coins, inherited from the Etruscans and presumably reminiscent of the triumphator, who, however, had only worn it on the day of his triumph. This image became iconic. In the dispute about Caesar s succession it was repeatedly taken up and minted by the followers of Octavian and Marc Antony. Denarius of Q. Voconius Vitulus, 40 or later. Obverse: Deified Caesar. Reverse: Calf.
12 Rebellion of the reactionaries A fervent believer in the Republic More than anyone else, Marcus Iunius Brutus had conveyed the clear message on his coins that he would not tolerate a tyrant. This coin of his shows Lucius Iunius Brutus, the legendary first consul and founder of the Roman Republic. The reverse portrays Gaius Servilius Ahala, who was known for killing a man because he suspected him of striving for autocracy. Denarius of M. Iunius Brutus, 54. Obverse: Head of Brutus, consul in 509. Reverse: Head of Gaius Servilius Ahala.
13 Rebellion of the reactionaries Caesar s end On the Ides of March, 15 March 44, some 60 senators assassinated the man who had used his money to turn their political system of clientilism against them and upset the order of the Roman Republic. Caesar s death. Painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, between1859 and 1867. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. Source: Wikicommons / Walter Art Museum / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en