Comparing the Aeneid to Homer's epics, is Aeneas more of an Achilles or an Odysseus?

Comparing the Aeneid to Homer's epics, is Aeneas more of an Achilles or an Odysseus? It is clear in the opening line of the Aeneid, the extent to which Virgil was influenced by Homer. The lines that introduce Homer s epics are as follows: in the Iliad Homer writes; Sing, goddess, of the anger of Achilleus, son of Peleus, the accursed anger which brought uncounted anguish on the Achaians and hurled down to Hades many mighty souls of heroes 1 and in his Odyssey; Tell me Muse, the story of that resourceful man who was driven far and wide after he had sacked the holy citadel of Troy. 2 What can be seen in the opening line of the Aeneid is, therefore, an unmistakable fusion of the two, I sing of arms and of the man. 3 The Aeneid can be analysed in accordance with the double noun used here, for one half, the first six books, illustrate the laborious journey of a man - Aeneas, and the latter six books thereby depict the arms - a great war between the Trojans and the Latins. Aeneas, throughout the Aeneid, adopts characteristics that can be attributed to the protagonist in either of these Homeric epics but he is neither more of an Achilles nor more of an Odysseus. He represents both equally, one in either half of the Aeneid. In the former six books Aeneas can be seen as more of an Odysseus, as these books are intended to exhibit similarities with the Odyssey, whilst in the latter six books which parallel the Trojan War Aeneas can be identified with the central figure of the Iliad, Achilles. By beginning his epic I sing Virgil purposefully refrains from employing the Homeric device of invoking the Muse in the first line. 4 Instead, Virgil adheres to this several lines later emphasising his own personal achievement as a poet 5 but thereby 1 Homer. The Iliad. Translated by Martin Hammond. (Penguin Books Ltd: London, 1987.) 1.1-3 2 Homer. The Odyssey. Translated by E.V. Rieu. (Penguin Books Ltd: London, 2003.) 1.1-3 3 Virgil. The Aeneid. Translated by David West. (Penguin Books Ltd: London, 1990.) 1.1 4 I sing of arms and of the man. Virgil. Aeneid. 1.1. Iliad begins Sing, goddess, of (Homer. Iliad. 1.1) and the Odyssey; Tell me, Muse, the story of (Homer. Odyssey. 1.1) 5 Anderson, William S. The Art of the Aeneid. (Bristol University Press: London, 2004) 7 1

establishing his narrative objective of rivalling Homer through imitation. 6 It is necessary, therefore, to communicate Virgil s intentions in this essay and elucidate that these parallels are more than the work of an awkward plagiarist. 7 On the contrary, Virgil s emphasis of Homeric similarities was intended to better distinguish differences in his characters, particularly in Aeneas, as Anderson remarks, Vergil uses the Homeric prototype to bring out the un-homeric aspects of his personages. 8 This essay shall articulate the important parallels that Virgil crafted and elucidate his ultimate objective of utilising these Homeric parallels in order to provide an epic resonance 9 and to establish Aeneas as a new hero in his own right. Like the Odyssey, the Aeneid is named for its eponymous hero whose journey leads the narrative. In the first verse of both it is stated that what follows shall be the struggles of the protagonist after leaving the lands of Troy. The Odyssey begins by noting that it will tell the story of that resourceful man who was driven far and wide after he sacked the holy citadel of Troy. He saw the cities of many people and he learnt their ways. He suffered great anguish on the high seas. 10 Virgil writes that the Aeneid will tell the story of Aeneas, a man who left the lands of Troy and came to Italy to the shores of Lavinium; and a great pounding he took by land and sea. 11 Many comparisons are immediately established: both Odysseus and Aeneas leave Troy after enduring the Trojan War, both experience an arduous and extensive journey, particularly at sea, and both travel through unknown foreign lands. The Aeneid and the Odyssey are, as Otis remarks, essentially an epic of one man s voyage 6 As Schlunk states: Vergil not only imitated Homer throughout the whole of the Aeneid, but at the same time sought to rival his predecessor both in the overall purpose of his epic as well as in the finest and most minute of poetic details. R.R, Schlunk. The Homeric Scholia and the Aeneid (University of Michigan Press: Michigan, 1974) 1 7 Anderson, William S. The Art of the Aeneid. 7 8 Anderson, William S. The Art of the Aeneid. 8 9 Otis, Brooks. Virgil: A Study in Civilized Poetry. (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1963) 311 10 Homer. Odyssey. 1.1-4 11 Virgil. Aeneid. 1. 2-5 2

through very strange and exotic territory as he strives, against both divine and human opposition, to reach his home. 12 The difference, however, is that through Homer s two epics Odysseus experiences the ten-year siege of Troy followed by a ten-year journey home. He is now an older man who has finished his duty, and desires, above all, to return to Ithaca and his wife Penelope. 13 The home that Odysseus longs for is, in contrast to Aeneas, insignificant. Outside of the Odyssey it has no historical importance or interest; it is the protagonist s personal salvation. 14 Aeneas, on the other hand, is a young man. He has his duty ahead of him to find a safe haven for his family but also to found a home for the Roman people. His journey is necessary for the future of an entire population, not just an individual yearning. Virgil s ambition, expressed by Schlunk 15, of imitating and at the same time rivalling Homer is evident here. Whilst replicating Odysseus character and the circumstances of his journey he also establishes Aeneas journey as one of far greater importance. Thereby his life is placed at a much bigger risk and consequently heightens the magnitude of the epic poem. Otis highlights a similarity between Aeneas and Odysseus in that both struggle against divine and human opposition. 16 The organisation of divine involvement is almost identical in the Aeneid and the Odyssey: both protagonists are aided by one Olympian and harassed by another. At the beginning of the Odyssey, we are told that Odysseus failed to save those comrades, in spite of all his efforts. It was their own transgression that brought them to their doom, for in their folly they devoured the 12 Otis, Brooks. Virgil: A Study in Civilized Poetry. 224 13 Homer. Odyssey. 5.219-225 14 Homer. Odyssey. 5.359 15 R.R, Schlunk. The Homeric Scholia and the Aeneid 1 16 Otis, Brooks. Virgil: A Study in Civilized Poetry. 224 3

oxen of Hyperion the Sun-god and he saw it that they would never return. 17 Odysseus and his men also invite the far more enduring wrath of Poseidon for blinding Poseidon s son, the Cyclops Polyphemus. 18 In addition, after escaping the Cyclops Odysseus ignores the words of his men and, in an extreme display of hubris, torments him by boasting that his eye was put out by Odysseus, sacker of cities, the son of Laertes, who lives in Ithaca. 19 At the beginning of the Odyssey, therefore, the hero and his followers directly invite the anger of divinities through their actions. In the Aeneid Aeneas too has the protection of one god, his mother Venus, and the loathing of another, Juno. He has, however, done nothing to invite the wrath of Juno. She hates him for reasons that are out of his control. 20 Aeneas is punished for being the stock of Dardanus, 21 the actions of other Trojans, and of future Trojan descendants. Virgil makes this clear from the beginning in the conclusion of his first verse: Tell me, Muse, the causes of her anger. How did he violate the will of the Queen of the gods? What was his offence? Why did she drive a man famous for his piety to such endless hardship and such suffering? Can there be so much anger in the hearts of the heavenly gods? 22 Like Odysseus, Aeneas s journey is both aided and jeopardized by the gods, establishing it as a journey also worthy of divine attention. However, unlike Odysseus, Aeneas is innocent, pious and thereby undeserving of his suffering. With these parallels Virgil effectively creates an epic resonance such as only Homer could 17 Homer. Odyssey. 1.6-10 18 Homer. Odyssey. 9.106-534. Odysseus and his men are captured by Polythemus and attempt to escape his cave, Odysseus finally comes up with a plan to blind the Cyclops using a sharpened and burnt staff. 19 Virgil. Aeneid. 9.500-4 20 Virgil. Aeneid. 1.13-34 - Virgil explains that Juno s wrath is due to several reasons: her love of Carthage and its future fate at the hands of the Romans in the Second Punic War, the judgement of Paris and the injustice of the slight to her beauty, and Ganymede, another Trojan who she envied for her husband s attention. 21 Virgil. Aeneid. 1.27 22 Virgil. Aeneid. 1.9-12 4

call fourth. 23 He places Aeneas in almost identical circumstances but absolves him of any blame or impiety that can be attributed to Odysseus. He creates a new hero but creates him on a Homeric foundation thereby reproducing the gravity of a Homeric epic and further emphasise - so heavy was the cost of founding the Roman race. 24 The second opposition that Otis identifies is, therefore, human. On their journey both Aeneas and Odysseus experience supernatural personifications and divine impediment but the first significant human encounter is not hostile and shows that they are just as affectively delayed by their own humane desires. In the Odyssey and the Aeneid both heroes encounter passionate, authoritive women. The romanticism that occurs in these encounters is comparable, but Aeneas is again established as a new hero defined by his piety. Calypso and Circe, like Dido, are heavily involved in the Odyssey and delay the protagonist s journey but it is in the character of Nausicaa where the heaviest similarities between Aeneas and Odysseus exist. As Slavitt identifies, book 4 of the Aeneid follows upon a very Odyssean book 3 Odysseus tells the Phaeacians the stories of his wanderings just as Aeneas narrates his stories of the fall of Troy and of his wanderings - to Dido. 25 Before they can do this, however, both are concealed in a shroud of mist or smoke by their divine protectress and judge their audiences without their knowledge. 26 Like Dido s desire for a future with Aeneas, 27 Nausicaa expresses: I wish I could have a man like him for my husband. 28 Although here nothing more develops between Odysseus and Nausicaa, the same cannot be said for Circe or Calypso. These two characters, like Dido, engage in a 23 Otis, Brooks. Virgil: A Study in Civilized Poetry. 311 24 Virgil. Aeneid. 1.33-34 25 Slavitt, David R. Virgil (Yale University Press: Yale, 1991) 110 26 Venus puts a cloud over Aeneas and Achates in 1.412 and it is removed to the surprise of Dido and her audience in 1.586-7. Athena envelopes Odysseus in a thick mist in 7.16 which disappears in 7.140-44 once he is inside the palace and has thrown himself around Arete s knees. 27 Virgil. Aeneid. 4.170-4 28 Homer. Odyssey. 6.241-2 5

sexual relationship with the protagonist. 29 Here again Virgil constructs a Homeric parallel and illustrates a passionate and climactic relationship between his hero and an empowered woman. The difference is that Aeneas has lost his wife and despite his feelings 30 he can do no more than acknowledge his debt and remind her that he is not a free agent: he is compelled by the god s command and his responsibility to his son to go on to Italy. 31 Odysseus, a married man, longs for his wife, but spends time romantically engaging with Circe and Calypso. Aeneas, despite his feelings, carries out his duty. 32 The parallels between Aeneas and Odysseus, however, do not exist solely in their experiences. Virgil further attributes Aeneas with similar characteristics to Odysseus but, again, rivals Homer and creates his own epic hero. In the beginning of the Aeneid, Aeneas gives a speech that cannot be mistaken for its references to the heroic code and it s similarity with one made by Odysseus in the Odyssey. Virgil writes that death stared them in the face. A sudden chill went through Aeneas and his limbs grew weak, 33 just as Odysseus great knees shook and his spirit failed. 34 Aeneas then reflects on what he thinks is his imminent death: Those whose fate it was to die beneath the high walls of Troy with their fathers looking down on them were many, many times more fortunate than I. O Diomede, bravest of the Greeks, why could I not have fallen to your right 29 Calypso expresses how she cared for Odysseus in 5.135-6 and in 5.155-6 it states that at night he slept with her in her vaulted cavern. Odysseus goes to bed with Circe in 10.347. Aeneas and Dido take refuge in a cave in 4.166-7 and Dido calls it marriage in 4.101-102 30 Depending on your view of Aeneas and Dido s relationship. Slavitt remarks that Aeneas is left blank but suggests it is a non-heroic tactic in his decision to sneak away. (Slavitt, David R. Virgil 111) Anderson feels that the love was mutual and Virgil uses it to give Aeneas more credit than tearful, broken Dido. (Anderson, William S. The Art of the Aeneid. 54) Camps offers a discussion of whether he is a stiff and unfeeling figure or a romantic lover making an agonizing sacrifice of his personal happiness to his duty. (Camps, W.A. An introduction to Virgil s Aeneid. 29) 31 Camps, W.A. An introduction to Virgil s Aeneid. (Oxford University Press: London, 1969.) 32 32 Aeneas is heart shaken 4.395 but as to whether he feels romantically passionate or sympathetic is unclear. 33 Virgil. Aeneid. 1.91-2 34 Homer. Odyssey. 5.297-8 6

hand and breathed out my life on the plains of Troy, where fierce Hector fell by the sword of Achilles, where great Sarpedon lies? 35 Odysseus speech in book 5 of the Odyssey displays identical feelings of remorse; Three and four times blessed are those countrymen of mine who fell long ago on the broad plains of troy in loyal service to the sons of Atreus. If only I too could have met my fate and died the day the Trojan hordes let fly at me with their bronze spears over Achilles corpse! I should at least have had my burial rites and the Archaeans would spread my name abroad. 36 Both protagonists regret the circumstances of what they believe to be their probable death, call upon great heroes from the Iliad and ultimately wish they had died honourably at the hands of a great warrior back in Troy. 37 However, whilst in their comparison Virgil clearly replicates heroic qualities that can be affiliated with the Homeric protagonist, there is also a great difference. Odysseus survived the Trojan War and was never faced with the same choice that Aeneas (and Achilles 38 ) was faced with. This is the choice between living, and dying a glorious death. Aeneas instinct is to run into the fighting and the flames, where the grim Fury of war called 39 and to bring relief to the palace of my king 40 but he resists only when divine omens and the words of his father urge him to preserve his house and grandson by fleeing Troy. 41 In his instinctive desire and resolution Virgil characterises Aeneas with a Homeric pursuit of glory but also accentuates a new concept of hero. Like Odysseus, he appears not to fear death but wishes it had been nobler, alongside compatriots and in service to his king. Like Achilles, he shows that 35 Virgil. Aeneid. 1.94-100 36 Homer. Odyssey. 5.305-12 37 Though Aeneas wish is also one of patriotism, he wishes to have died in his homeland whilst Odysseus wishes to have died gloriously in war, even if it is far away from Ithaca. 38 Homer. Iliad. 9.409-15 39 Virgil. Aeneid. 2.337-8 40 Virgil. Aeneid. 2.451-3 41 Virgil. Aeneid. 2.680-705 7

his passion attracts him to war; to stay, to fight, and to win glory. Ultimately, however, he is characterised by his service to the state and his filial piety. He listens to the words of his father, Anchises, who urges him to: Preserve this house. Preserve my Grandson. 42 In the same way that Aeneas ignores his personal desires to stay with Dido in book 4 43, his filial devotion and piety overcomes and he is faithful to his duty. 44 As Silk remarks: The Aeneid is a further critique of the ancient heroic code. Cicero writes that fame is not important in the grand scheme of things the Aeneid sharpens it by arguing that duty to the state comes before personal glory. 45 Virgil establishes the Homeric qualities of bravery and compatriotism in Aeneas, placing him alongside the great warriors of the Iliad and the Odyssey. However, he communicates a new type of hero and a new heroic code. It is his duty to the state and not personal glory that defines Aeneas and the epithet that Virgil employs throughout is, therefore, pius. Furthermore, like Odysseus, Aeneas journeys to the underworld but it is his filial piety that drives him forward. Virgil uses this to include monsters and supernatural beings from Homer and other sources. 46 He briefly asserts to monsters encountered by Odysseus 47 but these are things of the past, things already documented in literature and so they have no significant involvement here, just as Aeneas sails past the island of Circe. 48 He does, however, provide an extensive account of future Roman success and a glorification of Augustus. 49 Virgil creates parallels when necessary but 42 Virgil. Aeneid. 2.702-3 43 Virgil. Aeneid. 4.394-8 44 Virgil. Aeneid. 4.392 45 Silk, Michael. The Iliad. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1987) 71. Silk further remarks that this is extremely relevant after the age of warrior bullies in Rome. (Sulla, Pompey, Caesar). 46 During his journey across the river Styx and through the Underworld Aeneas encounters all variety of beasts and deceased heroes. 6.385-900 47 Homer. Odyssey. 6.280-310 Scylla Charybdis Harpies All manner of monstrous beasts 6.284 48 Virgil. Aeneid. 7.11-20 Aeneas too, shortly after this, meets a character directly from the Odyssey. 49 Virgil. Aeneid. 6.757-893 8

otherwise includes in brief and moves on with his more important task. Aeneas is brave and heroic, but he is defined by his pietas, not for his encounters with monsters. In his imitation Virgil is not trying to place the Aeneid alongside other texts, he intends surpass them and emphasise the greater purpose of his epic. Aeneas then sees his father, Anchises, who is reviewing his dear descendants, their fates and their fortunes, their characters and their courage in war, 50 but his attention is immediately shifted towards the new hero that approaches, a hero identified not with courage, but with devotion, the trait which Anchises here recognises in him: I knew your devotion would prevail. 51 Shortly after Anchises tells his son To impose a settled pattern upon peace, to pardon the defeated and war down the proud. 52 It is advice that is remarkably similar with policies of Augustus: Nor did he make war on any people without just and pressing cause. So far was he from being motivated by the desire for additions to his territories or to his martial glory that he forced certain German chieftains to take an oath in the Temple of Mars the Avenger that they would faithfully observe the peace that they themselves had requested. 53 Augustus, Suetonius documents, was notorious for his perspective on war. He was a peaceful ruler who here can be seen to pardon the defeated and only engage in war when absolutely necessary. The difference, therefore, between Aeneas and the protagonist in Homer s Iliad, Achilles, can be identified in the advice given to them by their fathers. Whilst in the above quotation Anchises represents, like Augustus, a peaceful approach, an insistence that war is not necessary, Peleus, Achilles father, instructed his son Achilleus always to be the bravest and best and excel over 50 Virgil. Aeneid. 6.683-4 51 Virgil. Aeneid. 6.687 52 Virgil. Aeneid. 6.853-4 53 Suetonius. Lives of the Caesars. Divus Augustus. 21.2. 9

others. 54 Achilles is, like his father, and Homeric heroes, driven by his desire for warfare and glory. He is among the proud that Cicero criticises and Aeneas and Augustus war down. 55 It is the other parent, however, of Aeneas and Achilles, where an unmistakable parallel can be identified. They both have a divine relation and protector in their mother who not only looks out for their safety, but provides them with gifts and implores the blacksmith god, Vulcan and his Greek counterpart Hephaistos, to forge these gifts. Vulcan, for Aeneas, makes one great shield to be a match for all the weapons of the Latins, 56 and for Achilles, Hephaistos makes a huge and massive shield, decorating it all over. 57 The protagonists are provided with no ordinary armour and both shields are given a lengthy ekphrasis by the authors to emphasise their greatness. Here too Aeneas piety is demonstrated and his reaction is significantly different to Achilles. Homer writes that Achilles, when he saw the shield, the anger reached deeper into his heart, and his eyes glared out from their lids as if they were flames. 58 Achilles is possessed with a desire for war when he sees the shield and almost immediately arms himself for combat. Aeneas, however, rejoiced at these gifts from the goddess and at the honour she was paying him. 59 Whilst Achilles thinks immediately of war and glory, Aeneas is grateful and feels respectful to the gods. The second half of the Aeneid mirrors the Iliad in many ways. The plot and poetical devices change: there are more epithets; more similes; and generally more 54 Homer. Iliad. 11.784-5 55 Virgil. Aeneid. 6.853-4 56 Virgil. Aeneid. 8.448-9 57 Homer. Iliad. 18.479-80 & 18.609 58 Homer. Iliad. 19.15-22 59 Virgil. Aeneid. 8.618-19 10

intricate details in the latter six books. Finley remarks that, the Iliad is filled with details, for that is the stuff of heroic narrative 60 and Virgil, appreciating Homer s ability at martial narrative, and his attention to specific details, replicates his techniques. Furthermore, the latter six books of the Aeneid display numerous parallels with the Iliad. The night missions of Nisus and Euryalus, Odysseus and Diomede, 61 the games in honour of the deceased individual 62 and even the Homeric catalogue of war 63, to name but a few. Both the Greeks in the Iliad and the Trojans in the Aeneid are losing the war whilst Achilles and Aeneas do not participate. This changes when, Patroclus, a beloved friend of Achilles is killed at the hands of Hector, just as Pallas, a beloved friend of Aeneas is killed at the hands of Turnus. In the wrath that is instigated by the loss of these characters both protagonists are filled with determination to enact justice, and the death of both Hector and Turnus leads to victory for the sides of Aeneas and Achilles. It could be argued that, in their murder of another warrior neither Turnus nor Hector deserve their fate. Turnus is killed despite begging for forgiveness and evoking Aeneas paternal feelings. 64 Achilles kills Hector and desecrates his body 65, but Hector does not deserve such a death, he has not acted unjustly. Turnus, however, violates the treaty and Aeneas kills him in his passion and devotion to his friend Pallas, he enacts justice. He wins the duel that was previously agreed, removes the last threat to his duty and paves the way for the founding of Rome. 60 Finley, M.I. The World of Odysseus. (Chatto & Windus: London, 1964) 46 61 Virgil. Aeneid. Bk.9 and Homer. Iliad. Bk.10. 62 Virgil. Aeneid. Bk.5 and Homer. Iliad. Bk.23 63 Virgil. Aeneid. Bk.10 and Homer. Iliad. Bk.16 64 Virgil. Aeneid. 12.930-40 65 Homer. Iliad. 24.1-34 11

Virgil, while honouring Homer by imitation, wished at the same time to compete in an agṓn with his predecessor 66 but his hero Aeneas is not an imitation of Achilles nor of Odysseus. For these Homeric protagonists everything pivoted on a single element of honour and virtue: strength, bravery, physical courage, and prowess. Conversely, there was no weakness, no unheroic trait, but one, and that was cowardice and the consequent failure to pursue heroic goals. 67 Aeneas, however, is not concerned with the pursuit of heroic goals, he is more important, he has - a duty not just to himself but to a nation and history. 68 In Augustus Res Gestae he proclaims his courage, clemency, justice and piety. 69 Aeneas displays all of these but it is the latter that he is defined by - pietas. Virgil create these parallels with Achilles and Odysseus to provide Homeric resonance 70 but, as Camps expresses - the final product is always distinctly his own. 71 Aeneas is neither more like Achilles nor more like Odysseus, he is purposefully compared to Odysseus in the first six books and Achilles in the latter six books but is ultimately a new hero in his own right. 66 R.R, Schlunk. The Homeric Scholia and the Aeneid. 49 67 Finley, M.I. The World of Odysseus. 28 68 Lyne, R.O.A.M. Further Voices in Vergil's Aeneid. (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1987.) 107 69 Augustus. Res Gestae Divi Augusti. 34.1 Though, of course, a large topic of debate is that he does not embody clemency towards Turnus. 70 Otis, Brooks. Virgil: A Study in Civilized Poetry. 311 71 Camps, W.A. An introduction to Virgil s Aeneid 82 12

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