Is the Prejudice towards Muslim in Korea simply an Immigrant Issue?

Is the Prejudice towards Muslim in Korea simply an Immigrant Issue? Dong-Jin Jang, Won Jae Choi, Beum Suk Kim Department of Political Science, Graduate School Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea ABSTRACT The main purpose of this research is to address the determinants of the prejudice toward Muslims in South Korea. It can be said that South Korea lacks Islamophobic legacy which has been more widespread and common in Western societies, especially in Europe. This kind of condition the absence of Islamophobic legacy poses an interesting research question regarding the variables that affect the rise of anti-muslim sentiments: how can we explain the prejudice against Muslims where a certain kind of society has no firmly embedded memory or background that affects the prejudice? This research may allow us to understand not only the mechanisms of prejudice against Muslim immigrants, but also the way how homogeneous societies react and recognise their difference and inequality. The data from Korean Broadcasting System(KBS) Broadcast Research Institute s Survey on Perception on Islam (2010) provide us with a valuable opportunity to test the relationship and effect of four variables: levels of knowledge about Islam, interest in Islam, security threat, and endorsement of multiculturalism on an attitude toward Muslim or Islam, which have not been tested in previous studies. In addition, this research will conduct in-depth analysis in order to explain the specific context in South Korea. I. Introduction This paper aims to examine the determinants of anti-muslim prejudice (Islamophobia) in South Korea at individual level. In spite of the huge number of academic contributions on anti- Muslims prejudice, their weakness is a preponderance of specific regional scope, Western Europe. The preponderance can be particularly problematic for building a general theory in two ways. Firstly, it is difficult to understand Islamophobia in Europe without the specific context. The negative view of Europeans towards Muslims or Islam can t only be derived from their historical legacy, which dates back to the time of Crusaders, but are also derived from the experience of extremist Islamic groups 1

terrorism in their countries. Such embedded context is largely taken for granted in previous studies. However, this context seems to be not compatible with other societies. The proportion of Muslim population is rapidly increasing around the world and Islamophobia has already become global phenomenon. This implies that it is necessary for us to observe Islamophobia via new general viewpoints free from specific context. In addition, the preponderance of Western society focused research may limit our theoretical perspectives. The previous research on Islamophobia is largely discussed in the realm of immigrant issues. However, it seems obvious that the limited understanding of Muslim population simply focused on a view of immigration issues can prevent us to answer the more pressing and relevant research questions. Some people can oppose foreign Muslims because they may regard Muslim immigrant issue as a security threat. Or other anti-muslim prejudice can be drawn from their lack of knowledge or their partisanship, not necessarily the immigrant issue. This research will seek to identify and compare the effect of anti-muslim prejudice s determinants by centring on a case which has a different background from previous research. We pay attention to the factors, the lack of knowledge and interest on Muslims or Islam and the lack of Multiculturalism that could affect the formation of anti-muslim sentiments in Korea. This paper consists of four parts. Firstly, it will begin with the justification how a single case from South Korea can contribute to the development of research on Anti-Muslim sentiments or prejudices by focusing on the definition of relevant key terms such as Islamophobia, anti-muslims sentiment. Secondly, it will review previous literature and set up statistical models based on literature review. Thirdly, it will discuss the statistical result and its analysis. Finally, this paper will end up with the implication of the research and suggest further research agenda. II. Is the Prejudice towards Muslims in Korea an Immigrant Issue? Modern Koreans are unexpectedly to face the situation of rapid increase of Muslims in Korea. As globalization expands and deepens, Koreans came to witness the considerable increase of Muslims in Korean society in the wake of increasing migrant workers, international marriages and long-term foreign residents for business in Korea particularly since the 1988 Olympic Games. The first Muslim community in Korean society began to settle as the Turkish troops participated in the Korean War as a member of the United Nations. Thereafter, in October, 1964 Korean Muslim Federation was formed, and later in March, 1967 Korean Islamic Foundation was established with the Korean government s official recognition. And in 1976 the Seoul Central Mosque, the first mosque in Korea, was built in 2

1976 in Itawon in Seoul. 1 Through this historical process, the Muslim community in Korea has grown into the current shape. Generally speaking, it is estimated that 140,000 Muslims are residing in Korea. According to a more accurate calculation, as of February, 2015, it is estimated that 135,585 Muslims who have foreign citizenship have flowed into Korean society mainly from OIC(Organization of Islamic Conference) and southeast Asian countries 2. According to one article of the JoongAng Daily (February 28, 2015), it is estimated that there are about 40,000 Korean Muslims and Foreign Muslims 164,500 in Korean society. 3 Until early 2010, the Islamic community in Korea has been sparsely scattered by nationality and language, but differentiation of the Suni and Shia sects was not observed. As Muslim migrants increase, sectarian differentiation in the Islam community in Korea is expected to appear. A Shia Muslims group named KICEA(Korean Islamic Culture Exchange Association) was founded on March 17, 2013. It is estimated that about 3% of entire Muslims in Korea are Shia Muslims and their number is approximately 3,600. 4 Koreans do not have accumulated knowledge through historical experience enough to understand Muslims and Islam. The lack of knowledge may be the underlying factor to the neglect of or prejudices towards Muslims. Before the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul, contemporary Korea has been also a country of exporting labourers to foreign countries. The 1988 Olympic Games provided a turning point for Korea to become a country of importing migrant workers. Faced with a rapid increase of migrant workers and international marriage that has accompanied the inflow of Muslims in Korea to the currently estimated number of around 140,000, the Korean government began to approach this new phenomenon with a very narrow-minded perspective on migrant workers as part of immigration policy. Realizing the limitations of this approach, in 2006 the Korean government has changed its approach to deal with effectively a new situation of South Korea changing into a multicultural and multi-ethnic society. With all the Korean government approach to deal with the increase of legal and illegal foreign residents as well as the newly naturalized citizens of multi-ethnicity, it has been criticized that the Korean government policy has been adhered to the policy of assimilation and integration, thus failing to incorporate the basic idea of multiculturalism respecting ethnic and cultural 1 For details, Dong-Jin Jang, & Won Jae Choi, Muslims in Korea: The Dilemma of Inclusion, Korea Journal, Vol. 52, No. 2(2012), 163-164; So Young Lee and Nurbossyn, An Analysis of Conflict of Islamic Immigrants in Korea Focus on Central Asia and South Asian Muslim, The Journal of Humanities Vol. 35, No. 1 (2014), 439-440. 2 Jung Kook Ahn, Current Situation of Muslim Migrants in Korea and Sectarian Differentiation: Focused on Shia Muslims, The Journal of Humanities, vol. 36, No. 3(2015), 157-158. 3 The JungAng Daily (February 28, 2015). Requoted from Jung Kook Ahn, Current Situation of Muslim Migrants in Korea and Sectarian Differentiation: Focused on Shia Muslims, p. 158. 4 See Jung Kook Ahn, Current Situation of Muslim Migrants in Korea and Sectarian Differentiation (2015), particularly pp. 155-156. 3

diversity. 5 This means that the increase of Muslims in Korea is not an issue of immigrants any more, but of multiculturalism. Along with an increasing number of researches on migration and multiculturalism in keeping abreast with the increase of migrant workers, international marriage, and immigration in Korean society, researches on the issue of Muslims in Korea began to increase. Though the research remains still in the beginning stage, we see some meaningful attempts not only to describe the current situation of Muslim immigrants in Korea to find out the problems specifically between ordinary Koreans and Muslims in Korea, but also to identify factors affecting Koreans perception of Muslims and Islam. Jang and Choi(2012), mainly relying upon historical approach and literature review, provided a general sketch of Muslims in Korea, by exploring the problems of Korean perceptions on Muslims, historical origins of Korean anti-muslim sentiment or Islamophobia, and the problems of Korean government policy with some suggestion for policy direction. 6 Hoi Ok Jeong s research, albeit still in progress for completion, attempts to identify the factors affecting Koreans anti-muslim sentiment that are distinctive from those of Western experience. Jeong s work is very similar to the idea of our research. By using selected data from the International Social Survey Programme(ISSP) Topical Module: Religion(2008), Jeong employs the factors of deprivation and religion to identify distinctive factors affecting the Korean anti-muslim sentiments. Jeong s study concludes that religious factors must be recognized as major predictor in explaining South Koreans attitudes toward Muslims, whereas the deprivation theory (stating that individuals in lower social strata tend to feel deprived and to direct anger and frustration toward groups of lower status than theirs) was unsuccessful in explaining anti-muslim sentiment among south Koreas. 7 Another attracting empirical research entitled Measure of Explicit and Implicit Attitudes toward Muslim among Korean Students was presented by Da Ni Lee and Kwang Bai Park at the Korean Psychological Association Conference in August, 2015. On the basis of the tests through computer on 60 respondents, students of Chungbuk National University, Lee and Park, by using the Implicit Association Test(IAT), attempted to measure the implicit attitudes of the respondents toward Muslims to identify the degree of their perceived Islamophobia. By measuring good/bad perception and the violence/ peace image of the respondents on Muslim in comparison with Christian, they confirmed their primary research hypothesis that the respondents (Korean students) would have 5 For details of the Korean government s multicultural policy along with the multiculturalization of Korean society, see Kyoung-Seok Oh et. Al, Multiculturalism in South Korea: A Critical Review (written in Korean)(Seoul: Hanul Academy, 2007). 6 See Jang & Choi, Muslims in Korea: The Dilemma of Inclusion. (2012), 160-187 7 Hoi Ok Jeong, South Korean Attitudes toward Muslims: Revealing the Impact of Religious Tolerance. Presented at the 2015 Korean Political Science Association Spring Academic Conference, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea, April 24, 2015. 4

negative attitudes toward Muslim. 8 Lee and Park s work are also related to the religious factors in background because they asked the respondent s attitudes toward Muslim in comparison with Christian. The religious factor for anti-muslim sentiment in Korea is closely associated with demographic landscape of religions in Korea. In South Korea, which has now slightly more than 50 million people, half of the population have not religious affiliation. 24% are Buddhists, 24% Protestants, 7.6% Catholics. 9 According to Statistics Korea(2005), Protestants are 8,616,438, Catholics, 5,146,147, Buddhists, 10,726,463. 10 Muslims are small in number in comparison with the numbers of Buddhists, Protestants and Catholics. It is also in the beginning process of public recognition from Korean society as a whole as well as from other religions. It may be interpreted that other established religions of Buddhism, Protestant and Catholic are reluctant to recognize the status of Islam in Korean society. 11 This situation may be a source of Korean anti-muslim sentiment. Jeong s findings and Lee and Park s works are meaningful for explaining factors that affect Korean anti-muslim sentiment. However, As Jeong explains in her paper, religious factors are also important to explain anti-muslim sentiment in western countries. In our paper, we attempted to notice the significance of factors of the knowledge and interest of Islam and the endorsement of multiculturalism that have not been seriously considered in western scholarship. Of course, it is undeniable that the factors such as security concern associated with terrorism, religious and cultural difference could affect Anti-Muslim sentiment or prejudices in Korea. Not only scholars and experts involved with Muslim scholarship in Korea are very limited in number, but also ordinary citizens who show interest and concern on Islam and Muslims are rare. Most ordinary citizens have not experienced to encounter and communicate with Muslims. The lack of knowledge on Islam and Muslims may play a role of fabricating an imagined image on Muslims that could be very source of Anti-Muslim sentiment or prejudices. We supposed in advance that the lack of knowledge and interest on Muslim and the support of multiculturalism could be explaining factors for Korean Anti-Muslim sentiment or prejudices. 8 The paper Measure of Explicit and Implicit Attitudes toward Muslim among Korean Students was presented by Da Ni Lee and Kwang Bai Park at the Korean Psychological Association Conference in August, 2015. It is still in progress for elaboration to publish. 9 Requoted from Hoi Ok Jeong, South Korean Attitudes toward Muslims: Revealing the Impact of Religious Tolerance. (2015), p. 60. 10 Recent information on religious demographic figure is not available now in the site of Statistics Korea. The Korean Statistics announces that the information on religious demographic figure as of 2015 will be published around at the end of 2016. 11 Specifically, Protestant churches show relatively more Anti-Muslim sentiment in Korea. See Jin Gu Lee, Protestant Church s Images of Islam in Multicultural Korea: A Focus on Islamophobia. The Critical Review of Religion and Culture 19(2011). 5

With regard to empirical studies, it appears that anti-muslim prejudice studies suffer the problem less systematic research both in the theoretical accounts and the empirical evidence. 12 In general, this topic has been largely studied as a part of broader topics, particularly, immigrant issue. The review article of Hainmueller and Hopkins (2014) offers two useful perspectives in order to understand the mechanisms of anti-muslim prejudice based on immigration attitude research perspective: Political economy and political psychology. First of all, political economy approach tends to emphasize material self-interest. Natives tend to have unfavourable opinions towards immigrants because it seems that the increase in immigrants is negatively influencing their quality of life. The rise of immigrants can lower wages especially for low-skilled workers and lead to stiffer competitions between natives and immigrants. However, the political economy approach probably does not fit into the specific group that we would like to delve into: foreign Muslims. This is because of the size of foreign Muslims in South Korea. As mentioned above, there are approximately 164,500 Muslims in South Korea. Clearly, the number is not significant enough to cause unfavourable opinions based on labour market competition between Korean people and foreign Muslims. Thus, it seems not plausible to assume that Koreans consider foreign Muslims specifically as their labour market competitors. Rather, Korean manual workers perhaps may be more worrying about immigrants greater in number from China or Southeast Asian countries as potential competitors, who usually have lower wage level than native Koreans. Social psychological approach consistently emphasizes perceptions of sociotropic effects on the receiving country as a whole. Those sociotropic effects are most commonly thought to be cultural, but they can be economic as well. 13 These sociotropic effects are largely transferable to threat which once again categorised as physical and symbolic one. In the South Korean context, one of the most typical examples of physical threat can be national security. The security issue can be very sensitive to Koreans in general due to the situation of division between North and South. Also, the combination between ethnically homogenous society and absence of active exchange and communication with Islamic society may drive Koreans to perceive foreign Muslims as cultural threat. Due to Muslims different way of life, some Koreans can be suspicious of Muslims and stay distant away from them. Finally, we can think of a factor that may alleviate the threat perception. A certain group of researcher places an emphasis on the importance of knowledge, which is likely to deepen understanding of other cultures, avoid misunderstanding and reduce the threat perception. For example, Novotný and Polonský (2011) found the negative association between the degree of knowledge of Islam and anti-muslim prejudice as a threat in Czech and Slovakia. This analysis fully 12 Strabac, & Listhaug, Anti-Muslim Prejudice in Europe: A Multilevel Analysis of Survey Data from 30 Countries. Social Science Research, 37(1), (2008) p.273 13 Hainmueller & Hopkins, Public Attitudes toward Immigration. Annual Review of Political Science, 17, (2014) p.230. 6

merits our attention to test feasibility in the Korean context, as it has been commonly argued that knowing Islam or Muslims can play a key role to solve the problem regarding Islam. Particularly, such arguments have been popular right after 9/11. III. Empirical Analysis 1. Conceptual clarification of the term Islamophobia or Anti Muslim sentiment Before we set out variables in this paper, we need to assume that the perception of Islam (Islamophobia) is interchangeable with attitude towards its believer, Muslim, or anti-muslim sentiment or prejudice. Precisely speaking, Islamophobia largely constitutes Anti Muslim sentiments, though it does not necessarily mean the same. However, it can be found that many studies (Halliday 1997, Klug, 2012, Githens-Mazer and Lambert 2010) use those concepts interchangeably. Moreover, South Korea whose history of the settlement of Muslim immigrants is relatively short and South Korean people have limited knowledge about Islam and Muslim (Ji 2015). Therefore, this research assumes that the respondents have interchangeable notion between Islam and Muslim. 2. Data and Method *Data Source Description In this research, we used survey data from the Korean Broadcasting System Broadcast Research Institute (KBS BRI, hereafter) Survey on Perception on Islam for our analysis. Basically, this survey was conducted as part of production of Muslim, a Stranger Around Us, from the Window for Current Affairs (KBS 시사기획창 ), television documentary programme. The institute has established its own internet survey pool, a people s panel ( 국민패널 ), and it collected survey data from registered panel whose age is over 20. From 9 th to 10 th March, 2010, the registered panel voluntarily take part in the survey via the internet whose sample size is 6,493. Due to its method of survey, the data is necessarily biased and the institute corrects for these biases with a poststratification survey weight. This survey aims to know the interest in and attitude toward Islam, images of Islam, opinion about the increasing number of Muslim. The significance of this data probably based on its sample size and it is the most up-to-date data. No single study has been based on such quantitative analysis which merits its systemic approach for them. Table#1. Descriptive Statistics for Respondents 7

Total N 6,943 100(%) Sex MALE 3,200 49.3 FEMALE 3,293 50.7 AGE 20 1,582 24.4 30 1,649 25.4 40 1,385 21.3 Over 50 1,877 28.9 Region Seoul 2,082 31.9 Busan 509 7.8 Daegu 355 5.4 Incheon 411 6.3 Gwangju 196 3.0 Daejeon 255 3.9 Ulsan 116 1.8 Gyonggi 1,456 22.3 Gangwon 130 2.0 Chungbuk 126 1.9 Chungnam 172 2.6 Jeonbuk 158 2.4 Jeonnam 97 1.5 Gyeongbuk 182 2.8 8

Gyeongnam 228 3.5 Jeju 32 0.5 No response 25 0.4 OCCUPATION Farming/Fishing/Forestry 31 0.5 Business/Management 265 4.1 Self Employed 373 5.7 Production/Manufacturing 154 2.4 Office/Administrative Support 1,544 23.6 Specialist ( 전문직 ) 713 10.9 Housekeeping 644 9.9 Student(Secondary) 71 1.1 Student(Higher) 1,359 20.8 Unemployed 208 3.2 Others 1,004 15.4 No response 164 2.5 We will mainly test three hypotheses: the knowledge of Islam, the endorsement of multiculturalism, and the perception of Islam as security threat. All variables are derived from questions which are scored on 4 or 5 lickert scales. Respondents are asked to choose the number which is the most nearest from their opinion. *Dependent Variable Anti-Muslim Sentiment is the main dependent variable of our research. It is measured by the question, To what extent, do you have a favourable attitude towards Islam? (1 = very favourable, 2 9

= somewhat favourable, 3 = neither favourable nor unfavourable, 4 = somewhat unfavourable, 5 = very unfavourable). *Independent Variables In order to measure the knowledge of Islam, we selected the question, Q1 To what extent, do you know about Islam? (1 = very well, 2 = some extent, 3 = almost nothing, 4 = not at all). Additionally, the interest in Islam is measured by the answer from the question, Q2 To what extent, are you interested in Islam? When the respondents are very interested in Islam, their answers are coded as 1, and they are coded as 4 when they show no interest in Islam. As control variable, this study will add age, gender, income. (The perception of Islam as) Security threat indicates the respondents perception of the association between Islam and Terrorism. The question is as follows Q5: Do you believe that there is the relationship between Terrorism and Islam? If they believe that Islam is highly related to Terrorism, their answer is coded as 1(highly likely), while the answer that they never believe the relationship between two is coded as 4(never). The endorsement of multiculturalism is a variable based on the answer for the question Q15 that For cultural diversity in our society, do you think that policy consideration is necessary? The answer consists of 4 lickert scale from it is very necessary coded as 1, to never as 4. Table #1. The Main Properties of Data (Descriptive Findings): Selected main variables relevant to this study from KBS research institute survey. (1) The knowledge of Islam very well some extent almost nothing not at all To what extent, do you know about Islam? 1.7% 42.0% 50.7% 5.6% To what extent, are you interested in Islam? 1.8% 28.7% 55.2% 14.3% 10

(2) The perception of Islam as Security threat very well some extent almost nothing not at all Do you believe that there is the relationship between Terrorism and Islam? 9.4% 45.6% 41.0% 3.7% (3) The endorsement of multiculturalism very well some extent almost nothing not at all For cultural diversity in our society, do you think that policy consideration is necessary? 2.5% 52.1% 35.8% 9.6% 3. Result Table#2 Determinants of Anti Muslim Prejudice in South Korea Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Sex 0.052*** 0.078*** 0.055*** 0.031* (0.015) (0.047) (0.043) (0.110) Age -0.026*** -0.010-0.006-0.009 (0.007) (0.007) (0.007) (0.007) Knowledge of Islam -0.062*** 0.016 (0.013) (0.303) Interest in Islam 0.299*** 0.205*** 11

(0.011) (0.011) Security Threat -0.292*** (0.010) -0.217*** (0.010) Endorsement of 0.364*** 0.261*** Multiculturalism (0.010) (0.010) N 6,493 6,493 6,493 6,493 Extract Log-Likelihood -5655.544-5609.733-5401.063-4970.865 Adjusted R-squared 0.1009 0.1136 0.1685 0.2708 Significant. codes: 0 *** 0.001 ** 0.01 * 0.05. 0.1 1 Model 1 includes personal level and interest variables. Model 2 mainly tests an association between the negative perception of Islam as security threat and Anti Muslim Sentiments. Model 3 is designed to include the endorsement of multiculturalism policy of South Korean citizens. Finally, Model 4 includes all variables in order to test our hypotheses. Model 1 demonstrates the significance of South Korean s interest in Islam. In other words, the less people are interested in Islam, they tend to be hostile to Islam and Muslims. The results from Model 2 proved the significance of Security Threat. People who are more concerned about the association between Islam and Terror (Security threat) are more likely to be negatively prejudiced toward Islam and Muslims. Model 3 focused on the support multiculturalism policy for Muslim immigrants. Among the variables tested in each model, this endorsement of multiculturalism has the most significant influence on attitudes toward Muslims positively. Lastly, Model 4, which included all variables, and compared to other models. All variables were largely similar to others in different models. However, to be specific, the knowledge of Islam in this model showed positive effect on Anti Muslim sentiments, and generally the significance of other independent variables had decreased. In terms of the control variables, age showed no significant effect in the whole model. Also, males largely had a positive view towards Muslims. IV. Concluding Remarks: Further Research and Discussion 12

There may be various factors that have contributed to the formation of anti-muslim sentiments or prejudices in a given society, such as the legacy of religious wars, security issue associated with terrorism, economic interest, the pattern and tendency of broadcasting, religious and cultural differences, the lack of knowledge and understanding, and experience of multiculturalism in policy. In our paper, we attempt to note primarily the factors of the lack of knowledge and the endorsement of multiculturalism that may be distinctive from the preponderance of western pattern. Our research insinuates that, by expanding knowledge and understanding on Muslims and Islam, Koreans can minimize and control the conflicts that might stem from anti-muslim sentiments or prejudices in Korean society. Anti-Muslim sentiments in a given society can be said an imagined product formed through interactive perceptions or cultural and religious dialogues between Muslims and people of other religion or cultural tradition. In our research, using selectively the KBS Research Data, we focused on the perceptions of ordinary Korean people towards Muslims and Islam. In order to have a more balanced and credible knowledge on the situation of Muslims in Korea, we need another empirical study on their perceptions of and attitudes towards Korean people and Korean society, which are not abundant in current researches in Korea. 14 Once Korean perceptions on Muslims and Muslims perceptions on Korean people are dovetailed, we can get a more sound understanding of Korean anti-muslim prejudices. Our research target is confined to the factors that have contributed to the formation of anti-muslim sentiments or prejudices that may be distinctive from the preponderant Western experiences. Our empirical test shows that the factors of knowledge and interest and the endorsement of multiculturalism significantly affect Korean anti-muslims sentiment. References In English: Baker, Don. 2006. Islam Struggles for a Toehold in Korea. Harvard Asia Quarterly 10.1 (winter): 25-30. Bleich, E. 2011. What Is Islamophobia and How Much Is There? Theorizing and Measuring an Emerging Comparative Concept. American Behavioral Scientist, 55.12: 1581-1600. 14 For a few works attempting to identify the perceptions of Muslims in Korea toward and their problems in adapting to Korean society, see So Young Lee and Nurbossyn, An Analyses of Conflict of Islamic Immigrants in Korea Focus on Central Asia and South Asian Muslim, The Journal of Humanites, Vol. 35, No. 1 (2014), 437-471, which conducted in-depth interviews with 21 Islamic immigrants living in Gwangju Metropolitan city; Jung-Kook Ahn, Current Situation of Muslim Immigrant in Korea and their Cultural Conflict, Journal of the Korean Association of the Islamic Studies, Vol. 22, No. 1(2012), 25-27. 13

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