Hindu Ethics
Hinduism Hinduism is the primary religion of India. It regards the Upanishads (900-200 BCE) as sacred.
Henotheism There are many gods, But all are forms of one being, Brahman.
Rg Veda They have styled Him Indra (the Chief of the Gods), Mitra (the Friend), Varuna (the Venerable), Agni (Fire), also the celestial, great-winged Garutma; for although one, poets speak of Him diversely; they say Agni, Yama (Death), and Matarisvan (Lord of breath). All these gods exist, but as diverse appearances of one God, the divine architect, the impeller of all, the multiform.
Bhagavad Gita Even those who are devotees of other gods, And worship them permeated with faith, It is only me, son of Kunti, that even they Worship, (tho ) not in the enjoined fashion. For I of all acts of worship Am both the recipient and the Lord.... I see the gods in Thy body, O God....
Concepts of Brahman Nirguna brahman: God without attributes; neti... neti (not this) Saguna brahman: God with attributes
Attributes of God Abstract: Sat: being Chit: awareness Ananda: bliss Concrete Creator (Brahma) Preserver (Vishnu) Destroyer (Shiva)
Six orthodox schools (darshanas) Vedanta (end of Veda, or sacred knowledge) Samkhya (nature) Yoga (discipline) Purva Mimamsa (exegesis, interpretation) Vaisesika (realism) Nyaya (logic)
Who am I? What am I? Advaita Vedanta, Samkhya, and Yoga answer that I am a higher consciousness than I might realize. Desire, will, and effort are extraneous to me.
Who am I? What am I? Not all Indian philosophers agree. Theistic Vedanta, Nyaya, and Mimamsa all defend what they consider our commonsense conception of ourselves: having bodies, having thoughts and desires, and generally being part of nature.
Vedanta Brahman: the Absolute, ground of all being, reality as it is in itself, God Atman: the soul
Advaita Nondualism: soul (Atman) = Brahman Monism: Everything is ultimately one. Everything is Brahman. Brahman is the child and the elephant, you and me. We are one with everything. Everything is holy.
Advaita Idealism: The world as it appears is not real. Distinctions are illusory. The world is maya (play, illusion).
Theism Dualism: soul (Atman) Brahman Not everything is identical with everything else. Realism: Some aspects of the world are independent of us. At least some distinctions are real.
The Higher Self The Upanishads affirm that each of us is in some way a soul (atman): a spiritual self that has, or is capable of, awareness superior to our everyday consciousness. This, our higher self, is continuous with the best of our surface or waking consciousness.
The Higher Self What is that? Our self-awareness our awareness of being aware. Reflecting on our own consciousness and nature brings us closer to our higher self.
Self-awareness Our self-awareness the gateway to Brahman is self-illumining, like light. It is transparent to itself and selfauthenticating.
Self-awareness What we experience could turn out to be an illusion. All objects of experience could turn out to be something other than what they seem to be. But self-consciousness is not like that. We might misidentify an object lit by a lamp, but we cannot misidentify its light.
Self-awareness We do not really have bodies; we do not really own property; we do not really hold jobs. But we really are conscious beings. Our awareness that we are aware is not an illusion.
Conscious being the body and senses the sensational or emotional mind (manas) the ego-sense (ahamkdra) the rational mind, or intelligence (buddhi)
Katha Upanishad Know thou the soul as riding in a chariot, The body as the chariot. Know thou the intellect as the chariot-driver, And the mind as the reins. The senses, they say, are the horses; The objects of sense, what they range over. The self combined with senses and mind Wise men call "the enjoyer."
Plato & Hinduism Plato's chariot has no passenger. Plato's horses are desire and emotion, not the senses. Plato s picture is closer to the Hindu account of the strands (intelligence, passion, inertia) than to the distinction between soul, intellect, mind, and senses.
Mind, Body, and Soul The soul is separable from body, mind, and intellect.
Separability of the soul Consequences: Enlightenment: You can detach yourself from each manifestation of nature. Reincarnation: The soul may occupy a different body and mind.
The self is a hierarchy Great Self Intellect Mind Objects of sense Senses
To master yourself Higher items must control lower items firmly: Objects of sense > senses: be objective, see the world as it is. Pay attention! Mind > objects of sense: be active, focus! Intellect > mind: reason > thoughts and emotions Soul > intellect: Brahman is ultimate reality; follow path of renunciation.
Yoga Yoga (self-discipline) is thoroughly practical. By practicing yoga, we can discover a higher self. Postures and breath control remove physical distractions. Meditation removes mental distractions; we concentrate to achieve complete mental silence. We thereby find or achieve a transcendent consciousness.
Four Central Concepts Dharma: duty; the laws that maintain cosmic order; the universe s moral backbone; the right way to live Mukti: liberation or enlightenment, the distinct and highest value Bhakti: love or devotion to God Karma: action or habit
Karma Virtue is its own reward We make our future selves by our current action through the development of good or bad dispositions to act Good actions increase our tendency (not to mention the tendency of others) to do good Bad actions do the reverse
Karma The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad: one becomes good by good action, bad by bad action. The Hindu tradition accepts the possibility of reincarnation The effects of our actions stretch into future lifetimes
Karma Psychological thesis: Any action creates a tendency or habit to repeat it Thus our karma our dispositions, formed by our previous acts determine much of our lives
Karma Thesis of moral cosmology: Virtue is its own reward. Vice is its own punishment Actions have external consequences that invariably embrace a moral dimension There is moral payback. What goes around comes around. You get what you deserve, if not in this life then in a future lifetime
Path of Desire Pleasure But the self is too small Success: wealth, fame, power Exclusive, competitive, precarious Insatiable Self is too small Rewards are ephemeral
Path of Renunciation Duty: Service to Community Transitory Imperfect Tragic Liberation (moksha)
Four Ways Strands: Intelligence > passion Intelligence > inertia Yoga, discipline
Four Kinds of Yoga Jnana yoga: knowledge Bhakti yoga: love (devotion) Karma yoga: work Raja yoga: meditation
Raja Yoga Ethical restraints Ethical observances Asanas (postures) Breath control Withdrawal of the senses Meditation
Meditation, 1 Concentration: binding the mind to a single spot
Meditation, 2 Meditation : cessation of the fluctuations of mind and (self-)awareness
Meditation, 3 Mystic trance: illumination only of the object as object, empty, as it were, of what it essentially is
Goals of Meditation Aloneness (kaivalya): reversal of the course of the strands, now empty of meaning and value Liberation (mukti)
Ethics in the Gita Divine command theory: God s command is what makes right action right. What God commands is obligatory What God allows is permissible Perform thou action that is (religiously) required.
What is Religiously Required? Liberation: Be thou free from the three Strands intelligence, passion, and inertia Ignore consequences: On action alone be thy interest, Never on its fruits.
Sacrifice By sacrificing our superficial self-interest and natural desires to act according to God s will, we become part of God s ongoing creative activity Our consciousness mystically widens to unite with God s Self-sacrifice allows us to participate in God s action That promotes our self-interest in a deeper sense
The Euthyphro Problem Euthyphro: What is right is what the gods love Socrates: Is it right because the gods love it, or Do the gods love it because it is right?
Ethics and Religion If the gods love it because it is right, There is an independent standard of right and wrong We can describe it independently of religion (Or can we?) A divine command is just a guide It does not define what is right
Divine Command Theory If it is right because the gods love it, There is no independent standard Ethics cannot be separated from religion We cannot morally evaluate the divine
Five Ethical Restraints Noninjury (ahimsa): Do not harm Property: Do not steal Chastity: Do not fornicate Truthfulness: Do not lie Lack of avarice: Do not covet
Five Observances Cleanliness Contentment Self-control Studiousness Contemplation of the divine
Stages of Life Student Habits, skills, information Self-improvement Householder Pleasure, success, duty to others
Stages of Life Retirement Understanding, philosophy Self-improvement, teaching Renunciation Preparation for death
The Bhakti Movement Bhakti: love or devotion to God Classical Hinduism: The world harmonizes with our deepest desires Huston Smith: You can get what you want.
Medieval India But medieval India found it hard to maintain that optimism Muslim invasions caused widespread destruction and suffering as many as 100 million dead and destroyed the great university at Nalanda in 1193 Bloodiest Holocaust in world history : attack cities, pillage, rape, execute all men, execute or enslave women and children
Daoism
Laozi (Lao Tzu; 6th c. BCE)
Dao The One The way the universe works What underlies the ten thousand things Ineffable Natural, spontaneous Eternal, unmovable Lacks moral dimension
Dao ineffable 1 The Dao that can be trodden is not the eternal Dao. The name that can be named is not the eternal name. Nameless, it is the origin of heaven and earth. Named, it is the mother of ten thousand things.
Dao amoral 5 Heaven and earth are not benevolent [ren]; They treat the ten thousand things like straw dogs. The sage is not benevolent; He treats the people like straw dogs.
Dao eternal 25 There was something indefinite existing before heaven and earth. Still, formless, alone, unchanging, Reaching everywhere without becoming exhausted, It may be called the mother of ten thousand things. I do not know its name; I call it Dao. If pressed, I call it "great." "Great," it flows constantly. Flowing, it goes far away. Far away, it returns.
Dao law Therefore Dao is great, Heaven is great, Earth is great, The king is also great. In the universe four are great, And the king is one of them. Humans take their law from the earth, Earth takes its law from heaven; Heaven takes its law from Dao, Dao takes its law from what it is.
Dao and De Dao the way the universe works De the power, force, virtue, nature of an individual thing Dao > De The features of the vast De Follow entirely from Dao.
Twofold character of De Active nature determines what a thing is & does. Regulating principle determines what a thing ought to be & do.
Dao and De 51 Dao produces ten thousand things, and De nourishes them. Their natures give them form, and circumstances complete them. The ten thousand things respect Dao and exalt De, Not by decree, but spontaneously.
Dao and De Thus Dao produces, De nourishes, grows, nurtures, matures, maintains, and covers. It produces without claiming possession, Supports without vaunting itself, Matures without controlling, This is called the dark De.
Ethical Principles Things naturally tend toward what they ought to be and do. De flows from Dao. De also flows toward Dao.
Noninterference Things naturally tend toward their own states of excellence. It ll be OK! Don t interfere. Our activity is likely to do more harm than good. Inactivity [wuwei] is a virtue.
Daoist Virtues Simplicity Weakness Tranquility Spontaneity Passivity Letting nature take its course People too naturally tend toward excellence.
Inactivity & Justice 63 Act without acting, Manage affairs without trouble, Taste without tasting. Consider the small great, the few many. Repay injury with De.
Daoist leadership Plan difficult things while they are easy. Accomplish great things while they are small. Difficult things of the world start easy. Great things of the world start small. Because the sage never does great things, He can accomplish great things.
Daoist leadership He who promises lightly keeps few promises. He who thinks things easy finds them difficult. Therefore even the sage takes even easy things to be difficult, So that they are not difficult.
Critique of Confucius Becoming good requires no special effort. We don t need training; we naturally tend to be good. Virtue [ren], righteousness [yi], and propriety [li] are signs that something has gone wrong. Act naturally things (including virtue) will take care of themselves.
Against Confucian Virtues Self Family Others 18 When the great Dao ceases to be observed, There are benevolence [ren] and righteousness [yi]. When wisdom and cleverness appear, There is great hypocrisy. When the six kinships are not in harmony, There is filial piety [xiao]. When the nations and clans fall into disorder, There are loyal ministers.
Against Confucian Virtues 19 Renounce sagacity, discard wisdom, People will profit a hundredfold. Renounce benevolence [ren], discard righteousness [i], People will again practice filial piety. Renounce artistry, discard profit-seeking, There will be no robbers and thieves. These three pairs adorn inadequacy.
Political Theory The best rulers, the people don t even know that they re there. The next best, they love and praise. The next best, they fear. The worst, they despise. When rulers lose faith in their people, People lose faith in their rulers.
Political Theory Words matter. Work done, things accomplished, The people say, We did these things ourselves.
Jainism
Jainism Mahavira (599-527 BCE): founder of Jainism Central doctrine: ahimsa (noninjury) Harm no sentient creature
Pain: Analogy O philosophers! Is suffering pleasing to you or painful?... just as suffering is painful to you, in the same way it is painful, disquieting and terrifying to all animals, living beings, organisms and sentient beings.... [Causing violence to the mobile-beings], in fact, is the knot of bondage, it, in fact, is the delusion, it, in fact, is the death, it in fact, is the hell....
Pain...all beings, those with two, three, four senses, plants, those with five senses, and the rest of creation, (experience) individually pleasure or displeasure, pain, great terror, and unhappiness. Beings are filled with alarm from all directions and in all directions. See! there the benighted ones cause great pain. All beings are fond of life, like pleasure, hate pain, shun destruction, like life, long to live. To all life is dear.
Pain The Arhats [saints] and Bhagavats [holy lords] of the past, present, and future, all say thus, speak thus, declare thus, explain thus: all breathing, existing, living, sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away. This is the pure, unchangeable, eternal law...
Ahimsa Acaranga Sutra: One should not injure, subjugate, enslave, torture or kill any animal, living being, organism or sentient being. There are some who, of a truth, know this (i.e. injuring) to be the bondage, the delusion, the death, the hell.
Pain Man (experiences pain) when forced into unconsciousness or when he is deprived of life. (So do the mobile-beings.) Having discerned this, a sage should neither use any weapon causing violence to the mobile-being, nor cause others to use it nor approve of others using it.
Pain Knowing them, a wise man should not act sinfully towards earth, nor cause others to act so, nor allow others to act so.
Differences from Utilitarianism Jainism considers pain as a negative source of value It sees pleasure not as a positive source, but a temptation to injury There are no tradeoffs: injury is forbidden, absolutely
Desire Desire inclines us toward injury He should be dispassionate towards sensual objects. He should refrain from worldly desires.
Positive Doctrine? Correctly understanding the law, one should arrive at indifference for the impressions of the senses, and not act on the motives of the world.
Non-Attachment Those who are freed (from attachment to the world and its pleasures), reach the opposite shore. Subduing desire by desirelessness, he does not enjoy the pleasures that offer themselves. Desireless, giving up the world, and ceasing to act, he knows, and sees, and has no wishes because of his discernment; he is called houseless.
Bhakti Leaders Akka Mahadevi (1100s) Janabai (1270? 1350?) Lalla (1320? 1390?) Mirabai (1498? 1550s?)
Bhakti Movement These women insist on the insignificance of distinctions Hindu, Muslim, or Buddhist, male or female, Brahmin or Shudra, rich or poor none of this matters True spirituality knows no boundaries. It is universal, available to anyone It is internal rather than external. It thus depends on nothing outside the self
Akka Mahadevi Lord, if you will listen, listen; If you won t, don t I can t bear to live without singing of you... I can t bear life unless I worship you... Offering you worship, I will play On the swing of happiness.
Akka Mahadevi What is the use of knowing everything If one does not know the self? When one knows in oneself Why ask others?
Janabai Please fulfill this desire of mine to thus Serve You constantly! This is the only craving of my mind. Let my eyes behold Your beautiful form always And my mouth ever chant Your sweet Name!
Janabai What I eat is divine What I drink is divine My bed is also divine The divine is here, and it is there There is nothing empty of divine Jani says Vithabai has filled everything from the inside out.
Lalla Lord, I have not known myself or other than myself. Continually have I mortified this vile body. That Thou art I, that I am Thou, that these are joined in one I knew not.
Lalla Though thou hast knowledge, be thou as a fool; though thou canst see, be thou as he that is one-eyed; Though thou canst hear, be thou as one dumb; in all things be thou as a non-sentient block.
Lalla Meet every one in a friendly way, Greet every one by name. Say yes Sir, yes Sir, to each one who addresses you. But live in your own village (i.e. stick to your own opinions).
Lalla Whate er work I did, that was worship. Whate er I uttered with my tongue, that was a mystic formula. This recognition, and this alone, became one with my body, That this alone is the essence of the scriptures of the Supreme Siva.
Lalla There is no Thou, no I, no object of contemplation, not even contemplation. It is only the All-Creator, who Himself became lost in forgetfulness. The blind folk saw not any meaning in this, But when they saw the Supreme, the seven worlds became lost in nothingness.
Mirabai We do not get a human life Just for the asking. Birth in a human body Is the reward for good deeds In former births.
Mirabai Unbreakable, O Lord, Is the love That binds me to You: Like a diamond, It breaks the hammer that strikes it.
Mirabai My heart goes into You As the polish goes into the gold. As the lotus lives in its water, I live in You.
Mirabai Like the bird That gazes all night At the passing moon, I have lost myself dwelling in You.