Healing Practices, Indigenous People, and Shamanism

Healing Practices, Indigenous People, and Shamanism By Roger Asterilla 7/20/2008 Understanding the roots of healing practices necessitates briefly examining their origins among indigenous people. According to current research, the indigenous people of the earth originated in the southeast to central regions of Africa. And, at least 70,000 years ago, they began a migration out of Africa that lead to world cultures in India, Euroasia, Southeast Asia, Oceania, the Pacific Islands, Thailand, the Phillipeans, and the Americas. 1 In their original homeland, this root stock of modernday people encompass the Mbuti, Ik, Khoi-san, and the Hadza people of Africa. From left to right: Efe woman of the Ituri forest; Khoikhoi man; Khoikhoi (Hottentot); a San woman & child (Bushman); and Hadza people of northern Uganda (a direct descendant of pygmies, or Mbuti people). Disparagingly known as pygmies, according to the accounts of the Efe pygmies, they originated in the region of the Mountain of the Moon, or Mount Kilimanjaro. They were the first to establish civilization, and tell of a great pygmy nation symbolized by the crocodile. 2 According to Pierre Hallet, author of Pygmy Kitabu, they also created the arts and sciences, metalworking, humankind s first legends and myths, the initial concept of god, identified the planets, and established the healing arts. 3 Regarding the healing practices of these people, they fall into the sphere of African Traditional Religion (ATR), and was carried out by what is currently identified in the west as shamans. 1 Smith, Deborah, Out of Africa: Aboriginal Origins Uncovered - May 9, 2007 <http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/out-of-africa--aboriginal-originsuncovered/2007/05/08/1178390312301.html> The pygmy people of the Ituri forest are composed of four groups: Efe, Aka, Twa, and Mbuti. The San and the Khoikhoi (meaning first people ) live further south in the region of the Kalahari desert. 2 Hallet, Pierre, Pygmy Kitabu 3 These assertions are not only supported by genetic research and anthropology, but also by world mythologies and legends. I will attempt to elaborate on some of these interesting facets. 1

The term, shaman comes to us via the Russian language, and originated in North-Central Asia. 4 Presently, it is used as a blanket term to cover the indigenous healing practitioners from different regions of the world, since terms such as medicine men and women, witch-doctors or Juju were used pejoratively by early Europeans coming into contact with indigenous populations. However, not only is the collective application of the term shaman being criticized, but its origin as well. The criticism of the collective use of the term is primarily leveled at New Age and Western forms of Shamanism. The reason is that these approaches to shamanism are perceived as watering down genuine practices, and reinforcing negative stereotypes. 5 The source of these movements is linked to Mircea Eliade, a philosopher and religious historian. Eliade wrote a principle source material on shamanism, and is being criticized for not conducting anthropological research. Specifically, the attack is aimed at the activities of a shaman, i.e., drumming, trance, chanting, entheogens and hallucinogenics, spirit communication and healing. 6 These practices also exist outside of shamanism and unique to any culture that use them. Thus, it is argued that these practices cannot be applied generally or globally to shamanism. On another front, it is argued whether or not the use of the term shamanism is even appropriate. Instead, it is recommended that either shamanhood or shamanship be substituted. The reason given is that either of these terms focuses attention upon the diversity and specific features of the discussed cultures. 7 It is further argued that they are less general and places more stress on the local variations, and... emphasizes... shamanism is not a religion of sacred dogmas, but linked to everyday life in a practical way. 8 Others have argued that there is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexists with other beliefs everywhere. There is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although, as for the past, their existence is not impossible). 9 If one can look past: (1) attempts at cultural marginalization; (2) realizing that what one does, does not necessarily reflect what one knows; (3) knowing that negating another s knowledge does not invalidate it; (4) attempting to de-mystify the sacred; and (5) fostering doubt regarding pure shamanistic societies a couple of questions will emerge. If a shaman is one who knows, what is it that a shaman knows? 4 It is stated that the word shaman originally referred to traditional healers of Siberia and Mongolia, and meant he or she who knows. Others say the term originated from the Chinese word sha men, which means Buddhist monk, and in its original form is a corruption of the Sanskrit word shramana a disciple of Buddha. Among the Mongolians it is synonymous with magician. Essentially, the term shaman refers to a person who knows [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/shamanism]. However, Jacob Bryant, author of Analysis of Ancient Mythology, gives the true origin of the term. He points out that the word shaman is linguistically related to Ham, one of Noah s sons. Bryant conveys that the ancestors of Ham worshipped him as a Deity, and who was called by the Egyptians Am-On (Amon), and was esteemed the Sun. His priests were called Chamin and Chaminim. Anyway it is examined, the term shaman implies to know, and to know is the essence of the word science. 5 Shamanism, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/shamanism> July 17, 2008 6 Ibid., p. 14 7 Ibid., p. 14 8 Ibid., p. 14 9 Ibid., p. 14 2

And, the other... is there evidence of a pure shamanic society? To seek an answer for the former, we must answer the latter first. For if there is a possibility that a pure shamanic society existed in antiquity, it is to be sought in Africa before the existence of ancient Egypt. However, there is evidence revealing that ancient Egypt definitely had shamanic elements within her culture, but these shamanic elements gained from the Pygmy civilization, which pre-existed Egypt s formation as a country. The Central Element of Shamanism According to Jeremy Naydler, central to shamanism are human experiences that are of a different order from the sense-perceptible world that normally captures our awareness. 10 Recognizing that these experiences are different than sense-perceptions is the first criteria for understanding shamanism. More importantly, Naydler argues that there are at least five related factors between shamanism and ancient Egyptian religion that separates them from modern religions. These five factors are: 1. the shaman in the role of a mediator between non-ordinary and the senseperceptible worlds, or ordinary reality; 2. the initiatory death ritual where the shaman experiences dismemberment followed by rebirth and renewal (see video clip of Homer Simpson); 3. the transformation of the shaman into a power animal; 4. the ecstatic ascent to the sky; and 5. crossing the threshold of death to commune with the ancestors and gods. All five of these facets experienced by a shaman are found in the Pyramid Texts of ancient Egypt, which originated during pre-dynastic Egypt, and are required experiences of Kingship. 11 However, there are perceived differences between shamanism and the ancient Egyptian religion. One of these differences is based upon the belief that shamanism emerged in hunter-gatherer societies that were organized in small scatered groups of people... and this may be the only difference, if it is in fact true. It must be realized that we are still learning about ancient Egypt, after all, she had no written language of alphabets, only hieroglyphics. This is something I think Naydler may have overlooked. For example, he states that nowhere in ancient Egypt is there the single figure of the shaman in Egypt, entering onto trance states in order to retrieve souls, heal the sick, or journey into the spirit world as described in shamanism. 12 However, at the time of his writing, he may not have been familiar with the work of Greg Reeder. According to Reeder, the specific activities carried out by the shaman 10 Naydler, Jeremy. Shamanic Wisdom in the Pyramid Texts: The Mystical Tradition of Ancient Egypt. Inner Traditions: Vermont, 2005 11 Ibid., p. 15; It should be further noted that Kingship was the royal principle of ancient Egypt. As such, it represented Harmony. Therefore, Kingship 12 Ibid., p. 16 3

are seen in the function of the Sem priests, and in their recently discovered role as the Teknenu. 13 This mysterious shrouded figure, present in numerous ancient Egyptian funeral ceremonies, is identified with the name "tekenu." Early Egyptologists saw him as a possible sacrificial victim. A current theory holds that the shroud contained just spare body parts left over from the mummification process. 14 It was initially believed that the Tekenu, a figure of a man in a bag, a fetal or sitting position, and pulled on a sled in a funeral procession. Sometimes, the Tekenu figure occasionally had a mask where a face would be on the figure, and sometimes it did not look like a man at all. 15 This research by Egyptologist Reeder reveals that the Tekenu, when finally placed in the tomb, sits up during the 'Opening of the Mouth' scene, and reveals he is obviously human and alive. Reeder states: It is the Sem priest who is awakened from his trance at the beginning of that ceremony at the tomb of the deceased. The Sem states that he was "asleep" but had visited the deceased in the otherworld. The Sem then is a shaman undergoing a trance like dream state in the guise of the tekenu. As the tekenu he is transported to the tomb wrapped in a shroud to help facilitate his "death" so that he can be transported to the other world. Thus having visited the spirit world, the Sem was imbued with powers which enabled him to perform the succeeding "Opening of the Mouth" ceremony for the deceased. The tekenu was no more for he had been transformed into the Sem. 16 The Sem priest of ancient Egypt were the priest of Sokar-Ptah-Osiris, and were distinguished by their unique leopard attire draped over a white kilt. One need only 13 To his credit Naydler does point out that in ancient Egypt there were priest, healers, magicians, and the king himself, that collectively served the functions of a shaman. However, these individuals all seem to be connected with a body of priest called Sem. It is believed by this writer that the Sem priest were the shamans of ancient Egypt. 14 Greg Reeder, The Enigmatic Tekenu - <http://www.egyptology.com/reeder/enigma/tekenu1.html> April 9, 2008 15 Caroline Seawright. Human Sacrifice in Ancient Egypt <http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/humansac.htm July 20> 2008 16 Ibid., p. 15 4

to look at the functions of the Sem priests to recognize their corresponding role to shamans. First and foremost, the Sem priests were an unbroken line of priests and traced through Osiris, Ptah, and Sokar. They were in charge of Egypt s divine and mortuary temples, or the daily activities of the state and the annual rituals and festivals. One of the important festivals was the Sokar festival, which occurred in the fourth month of the Egyptian civil calendar, and lasted for six days. The importance of this festival is that it predated Egyptian history, and the implication is that the Sem priest pre-existed Egyptian dynastic history. 17 It is in Egypt s predynastic history that her connection to shamanism is understood, and the key to this connection are the African pygmies. African Pygmies, Ancient Egypt and Shamanism Mircea Eliade, who is primarily responsible for introducing shamanism to the modern world, states that shamanism should be classified as mysticism. 18 I have no problem with this, however, I think that the connection between the pygmies, shamanism, the ancient Egyptian religion are being overlooked. As the indigenous people of the earth, the pygmies, who preexisted not only the Egyptian dynastic period, but all people on earth. In today s Africa, they live in small bands as hunter-gather groups. It is from such modes of living that shamanism is said to have originated. However, they did not always live in this manner, and shamanism appears to be a carryover of a much more scientific and pre-existing 17 Asterilla, Roger L. A Framework for Approaching What Alchemy Is and its Ancient Foundations: Submitted as Final Requirement to Flamel College, Home Study Alchemy Course 2008. 18 Naydler, Jeremy. Shamanic Wisdom in the Pyramid Texts: The Mystical Tradition of Ancient Egypt. Inner Traditions: Vermont, 2005 5

perceptual system of existence. This assertion is supported by myths, legends, and anthropological research. For example, in the Mesopotamian pantheon of gods, the god-head is composed of Anu, Enlil and Enki. Among these gods, Enki, who had dominion over Africa and the mining operation there, is credited with the creation of mankind. Along with his consort Ninharsag, Enki created man in a response to an attempted rebellion against Enlil due to harsh working conditions regarding the mining of gold. Mankind, as a primitive worker and who were called the Black-headed Ones were put to work in the gold mines as soon as they matured. As they increased in number they would assume more and more of the physical labors in the Abzu (southeast Africa). As the production of gold increased in Africa, the workload upon the Annunaki in Mesopotamia increased as well. As a result of this increase an appeal was made to Enki for the labor of the primitive workers. Enki refused Enlil, who held dominion in Mesopotamia, stage a raid on the mines in Africa in order to obtain the primitive workers. Aware of the impeding raid, the Annunaki in Africa placed these primitive workers in a fortified compound and readied for the attack. However, Enlil had weapons that broke through these fortifications. It is stated: With these weapons Enlil drove a hole through the fortifications. As the hole widened Primitive Workers were breaking out toward Enlil. He eyed the Black-headed Ones in fascination... Thereafter the Primitive Workers performed the manual tasks in both Lands: In the Land of the Mines they bore the work and suffered the toil : in Mesopotamia, with picks and spades they built gods houses, they built big canal banks: food they grew for the sustenance of the gods. 19 There are two points to be made here: (1) that the initial creator god of Africa, who in Mesopotamian mythology is called Enki, is synonymous with the god Ptah in Africa 20 ; and (2) that southeast Africa was the first regional home of mankind according to Mesopotamian mythology (which is said to be the oldest in the world). In Africa, Ptah is described as a dwarf deity and chief of nine earth spirits (Ptah plus eight spirit helpers) called Khnûmû 21, the modelers. As a dwarf or pygmy deity, Ptah 19 Sitchin, Zecharia. The War of Gods and Men: Book III of the Earth Chronicles. Avon Books: New York, 1985. 20 According to the work of Charles Pope, Archeology of the Patriarchs, there was only one family of gods who were known by different names in different regions, especially between Mesopotamia and Africa. See Chapter Two A Single Mother and Two Families: <http://www.domainofman.com/book/cover.html> 21 Khnûmû, or Khnum is one of Egypt s earliest deities. Originally, he was the god of the source of the Nile River. Since the annual flooding of the Nile brought with it silt and clay, and its water brought life to its surrounds, he was thought to be the creator of the bodies of human children, which he made at a potter's wheel, from clay, and placed in their mothers' wombs. He later was described as having molded the other deities, and he had the titles Divine Potter and Lord of created things from himself... In art, he was usually depicted as a Ram-headed man at a potter's wheel, with recently created children's bodies standing on the wheel, although he also appeared in his earlier guise as a water-god, holding a jar from which flowed a stream of water. However, he occasionally appeared in a compound image, depicting the elements, in which he, representing water, was shown as one of four heads of a man, with the others being, Geb representing earth, Shu representing the air, and Osiris representing death. Some think this is a depiction which may have had an influence on Ezekiel and Revelations, as Khnum had a Ram's head, Shu sometimes appeared with a Lion's head, Osiris was a human, and Geb had a goose on his head... The worship of Khnum centred on two principal riverside sites, Elephantine Island and Esna, which were regarded as sacred sites. 6

is not only credited with the creation of mankind, but he also had the power to call into existence each thing he names, was the embodiment of mind from which all things emerge, and his ideas took material shape when he gave them expression. Ptah was also seen as "the mind and tongue of the gods", and the creator of other gods as well as of "all people, cattle, and reptiles", the sun, and the habitable world. 22 Essentially, Ptah was seen as the Master Architect of the Universe and Divine Blacksmith, and called the God of creation and rebirth, and patron of architects, designers, metal workers, builders, masons, craftsmen, and artists. 23 In short, Ptah was a god associated with all creative functions. In the Old Kingdom of Egypt, Ptah was established as the patron deity of Memphis, and one of ancestral gods, who were summarized in the Divine Pygmy, Bes. 24 The Egyptian deity Bes: associated with domestic matters, as well as laughter, dancing and general merrymaking. He is seen a pygmy shaman, complete with ceremonial dress of animal hide and feathers. 25 Bes was a popular god among the Egyptian people, who worshipped him as a god of pleasure, music, mirth, and dance; and was depicted wearing the feathers like the Egyptian deity Shu, having cat-like features, adorned in a leopard s skin like the Sem priests, and carrying a musical instrument. Bes also had a war-like function in which he was represented with sword, shield, and wearing a military tunic. For the ancient Egyptians, Bes also symbolizes their ancestral gods, whom the Egyptians At Elephantine, he was worshipped alongside Anuket and Satis as the guardian of the source of the River Nile. His significance led to early theophoric names of him, for children, such as Khnum-khufwy Khnum is my Protector, the full name of Khufu, builder of the Great Pyramid. Due to his importance, as an aspect of the life-giving Nile, and also the creator, Khnum was still worshipped in some semi-christian sects in the second or third centuries. [SOURCE: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/khnum>] 22 Mackenzie, Donald. Egyptian Myths and Legends. <http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/eml/index.htm> 23 PTAH - PTEH PETEH, Sept. 14 th, 2007 <http://www.crystalinks.com/ptah.html> 24 Hallet, Jean-Pierre. Pygmy Kitabu. Random House: New York, 1973 25 [SOURCE]: <http://www.ladyoftheflame.co.uk/deities.htm> 7

identified with the pygmies who lived in the Land of the Spirits. According Egyptian history, their creator-god not only created the universe and fathered their ancestors, but walked among them as well. At some point, the God retired from the earth and was replaced by god-kings incarnate, and demigods until the advent of the Egyptian Pharaoh Menes. It was these Egyptian ancestors before Menes that the ancient Egyptian summarized in into Bes. One of the main facets of shamanism is the inclusion and identification with various animals. Animal associations are not only encoded into Egyptian images and hieroglyphs, but Bes is presented with cat-like features and abilities. According to Hallet, who lived with the African pygmies for more than ten years, he states: The pygmies admire cats as cleaver, alert, freedom-loving hunters, who in these respects resemble Pygmies. Like the Pygmies, the cat has sharp-sighted, large and very beautiful eyes...[they have] extraordinary eyesight... do not suffer from color blindness and have the keenness vision of any living human. Their minds are also very keen: to use a favorite Efé phrase, Pygmies are cleaver as a cat. 26 This feeling of spiritual and intellectual kinship is also seen in their symbolism of their clan emblem of the leopard that is also a symbolic representation of their ancestors. This symbology was also represented in ancient Egypt by a wingedhead of a man on the back of a leopard. In a description of the symbology of this symbol, Hallet states that the head represents the intelligence of man, the wings the swift flight of a bird, and the body the strength and lithe motions of the leopard. The point here, in this brief paper, is to point to the origin of healing and its techniques, the ancestral origins of the Egyptians, and to the indigenous people of Africa. Regarding this latter issue, when you begin to examine the origins of words, you will find that the term Bes ( bs ) means to initiate, to reveal, and implied secret. Thus, the "secret of secrets" in ancient Africa was associated with the deity or "Bes, the Chief Deity of the Pygmies. The point here is that there is something even deeper than the Pygmies. To Be Continued... 26 Hallet, Jean-Pierre. Pygmy Kitabu. Random House: New York, 1973 8