Julius Caesar A superb general and politician, Julius Caesar (c.100 BC 44 BC / Reigned 46 44 BC) changed the course of Roman history. Although he did not rule for long, he gave Rome fresh hope and a whole dynasty of emperors. Dangerous times Born into an aristocratic family in around 100 BC, Julius Caesar grew up in dangerous times. Rome could not yet handle its own size and power. e nobility were widely discredited and order had given way to chaos. e only clear alternative was military dictatorship. Caesar allied himself against the nobility. As his career took off, he won a number of political offices, not always by reputable means. By 63 BC, he had become a well-known, but controversial figure. Viva Espana Despite his notoriety, he was appointed governor of Farther Spain. is was a lucrative position, because it offered him the chance to plunder the local inhabitants at will. He returned to Rome in 60 BC and, the following year, was elected consul, the highest office in the republic. Now holding real power, Caesar allied himself with two key people, Pompey and Crassus. Pompey was a war hero who had been badly treated by the Senate, while Crassus was a multimillionaire. e two men were rivals but Caesar was able to bridge the gap between them and the three men formed the powerful first triumvirate. I predict a riot As consul, Caesar wanted to pay off Pompey s soldiers by allocating them public lands. is was unpopular, so to get the measure through he engineered a riot and used the chaos to get his own way. He then used his power to secure the governorship of Gaul (modern day France and Belgium). Gaul gave Caesar a power-base to recruit soldiers and conduct the military campaigns that would make his name and secure his fortune. Conquering Gaul Between 58 and 50 BC, Caesar used his expertise in military strategy, along with the Roman army s training and discipline to conquer and subdue the rest of Gaul, up to the river Rhine. When battling foreign enemies, Caesar was ruthless. Besieging rebels in what is now the Dordogne part of France, he waited until their water supply ran out and then cut off the hands of all the survivors. Under threat back home
He now turned his attention back home. His triumvirate was badly strained. Pompey was increasingly jealous of Caesar s success and Crassus still hated Pompey. After Crassus was killed in battle, Pompey and Caesar drifted apart, ultimately finding themselves on opposing sides. By now, Caesar was very successful, but he had many enemies and found his position and his life under threat. He believed the only way he could protect himself was by seizing power. In January, 49 BC, he led his troops across the Rubicon River into Italy and started civil war. Civil war Caesar scored some early victories and, by 46 BC, was dictator of Rome. After a year spent eliminating his remaining enemies, he returned home. Generous in victory, he was kind to his defeated rivals, giving them all amnesties and even inviting some to join him in government. Yet his position remained insecure. Without a son of his own, he needed an heir. Caesar quickly adopted his great nephew, Augustus. He also moved fast to strengthen the northern borders of the empire and tackle its enemies in the east. At home, he reformed the Roman calendar, tackled local government, resettled veterans into new cities, made the Senate more representative and granted citizenship to many more foreigners. Beware the Ides of March But his rule would be cut short. Old enemies joined forces with some of his supporters, fed up of his dictatorial style. On March15, 44 BC, the Ides of March, Caesar was assassinated in the Senate. Although his own rule was unremarkable, his victory in the civil war replaced a republic, ruled by the consuls and the Senate, with an empire, reigned over by emperors and their hereditary successors. It was the start of a brand new age for Rome.
Augustus Adopted by Caesar, Augustus (c.62 BC 14 AD / Reigned 31 BC 14 AD) had to fight for his throne. His long rule saw a huge expansion in the Roman Empire and the beginnings of a dynasty that, over the next century, would transform Rome, for better and worse. e man who would become one of Rome s greatest leaders had an unpromising start in life. Despite prophesies of future greatness, Augustus was a sickly child in a family with few connections. His father died when Augustus was four. His prospects were bleak: Rome was dangerous, engulfed by civil war between power-hungry factions. One of these was led by his great-uncle, Julius Caesar. A bit of luck en Augustus got a lucky break. In 46 BC, Caesar won the civil war and was named dictator of Rome. To secure his position, he needed an heir. With no son of his own, he adopted Augustus. is was a fantastic opportunity for a young man from nowhere. Almost at once, however, Caesar was dead murdered by his own advisors. Augustus was just 19, but immediately threw himself into the backstabbing world of Roman politics. Claiming the throne He formed a strategic alliance with Marc Antony, a successful and ambitious general. Over the next few years, they defeated their enemies in Rome and chased the survivors to Greece, where they finished them off in two of the bloodiest battles in Roman history. e killing over, the empire was theirs and they divided the spoils. Augustus kept Rome, while Antony took Egypt. ere he fell under the spell of Cleopatra, Egypt s beautiful queen. Trouble in Egypt Romans feared that Cleopatra wanted the throne for herself and his relationship with her made Mark Antony a hated man in Rome. His alliance with Augustus disintegrated but, before Antony and Cleopatra could strike Rome, Augustus attacked. e Battle of Actium in 31 BC destroyed three-quarters of the Egyptian fleet. Cleopatra and Marc Antony killed themselves and, finally, the Roman Empire now included the land of the pharaohs. Local hero Back home, Augustus was a hero. At the age of 32, he had become Rome s first Emperor, promising to restore peace and security.
Winning the war had been difficult, but was nothing compared to the challenge of winning the peace. He had divorced his wife and married his pregnant mistress, Livia. Many immediately suspected him of wanting to create a dynasty to rule Rome for generations to come. A charm offensive To avoid Caesar s fate, Augustus charmed the Senate and the people by pretending to give up power. But a series of disasters panicked Romans. ey became convinced that only he could save them and begged the Senate to vote him absolute ruler. Augustus agreed, but did so cleverly. He convinced Romans that he was ruling in the best traditions of the republic, but actually was an absolute ruler creating a dynasty. e Romans bought it. Growing older During his reign, Augustus achieved a lot. He expanded the empire, adding Egypt, northern Spain and large parts of central Europe before invading Germany. At home, he spearheaded a conservative approach that used the glory of Rome s past as a blueprint for its future. But problems remained. His moral conservatism had clashed with the public promiscuity of his daughter, Julia. He was forced to banish her. What s more, Augustus was growing older and weaker. Despite his successes, the plotting continued. Everything that Augustus had worked so hard to achieve was in danger of collapsing as he faced crisis after crisis, both at home and abroad. Nevertheless, Augustus clung onto power for another 10 years. When he died, in 14 AD, the Senate declared him a god. With his two grandsons already dead, power passed to his stepson, Tiberius. So what did he do? Augustus had ended 100 years of civil war and achieved over 40 years of internal peace and prosperity. His vision and power had expanded the Roman Empire to become far more than a collection of countries. Instead, it was a diverse society and enormous marketplace in which people across Europe, north Africa and the Middle East could trade and travel under Rome s protection. He had won over the Senate and founded a dynasty. But this would feature as many villains as heroes, and would take Rome on a roller-coaster ride into assassination, insanity and terror.
Tiberius Never the preferred heir, Tiberius (42 BC 37 AD / reigned 14 37 AD) soon showed why Augustus had wanted someone else. His political inability, poor judgment and jealousy led Rome into a dark age of political purges, murder and terror. Tiberius had waited a long time to be emperor and had made many sacrifices. In 11 BC, Augustus had forced him to divorce his much-loved wife and marry Julia, the emperor s daughter. e two did not get on. A bad start Even so, Tiberius only became heir after the death of Julia s two sons. He knew he was not the preferred successor but, with Augustus dead, it was time for him to step up and claim power. is was tricky, because the Senate didn t trust him. Tiberius tried to mimic Augustus and feigned reluctance. is was a disaster. He didn t have the same political skills as Augustus and gave out mixed signals. is only caused further resentment and, although he did become emperor, his position was weak. Tiberius knew this himself, saying that governing Rome was like holding a wolf by the ears. Military mutiny He was soon to face his first test. Fed up with life in cold, northern Europe, two armies were mutinying and threatened to march on Rome. With an empire built on force, this was any emperor s worst nightmare. Tiberius sent his young, charismatic nephew, Germanicus, to sort the situation out. Irritatingly successful Sure enough, Germanicus hit the spot, rallying the troops before leading them to victory against the Germanic tribes. Having turned a highly dangerous situation into a great victory, Germanicus was a hero. Still insecure, the last thing Tiberius wanted back in Rome was a war hero with a claim to the throne. He appointed Germanicus to be governor of the remote eastern provinces. Once more, Germanicus was annoyingly successful, loved by Romans and locals alike. It s a mystery is success brought Germanicus new enemies and he died in mysterious circumstances in 19 AD. Many thought he had been poisoned and blamed Tiberius. He denied it, but the whispers refused to go away.
Although Tiberius was now more secure, he was not happy. He despised his plotting, toadying courtiers, saying they were fit to be slaves. In turn, his mood swings set the Senate against him. Bad judge of character is mutual contempt led Tiberius to go elsewhere for advice. But he went to the wrong place, choosing Sejanus, a cavalry officer and small town cheat. Tiberius was impressed by Sejanus. He praised him as "the partner of my labors" and gave him command of the Praetorian Guard, which protected the emperor. Sejanus abused this trust and his position. He increased his power by concentrating the guard in a single camp, and began to persecute potential rivals. Many were tried for treason and executed. V for vendetta Warning that Germanicus family was plotting against the emperor, Sejanus exiled the dead hero s widow before killing her two elder sons. Only the youngest, Caligula, was spared. All this time, Tiberius did nothing. He was now an old man and had retreated to Capri, where he was safe from his enemies and could pursue a number of diversions, including astrology and drinking wine. Cut off from Rome almost completely, only Sejanus was allowed to visit regularly. Change in fortunes Just when Sejanus appeared ready to seize power for himself, it went horribly wrong. In 31 AD, Tiberius turned against him in favor of Caligula, the only surviving son of Germanicus. He sent a secret message to the Senate condemning Sejanus. ey captured him, strangled him, and dumped his body in the river Tiber. Still in Capri, Tiberius continued to rule, with Caligula now his heir. When he died in 37 AD, Rome welcomed the news. Little did they know what was yet to come.
Caligula Seen as a welcome breath of fresh air when he took the throne, Caligula s (12 41 AD / Reigned 37 41 AD) eccentricities soon became terrifying and he was murdered after just five years in power. After the unhappy years of purges and treason trials, Rome welcomed its new emperor. e youngest son of the war hero, Germanicus, Gaius Caesar had grown up around soldiers and his nickname, Caligula, meaning "little boots," had stuck. High hopes As a child, Caligula had suffered enormously. His mother had been exiled and his two elder brothers executed on flimsy treason charges. As the grown mascot of Rome's army and the only surviving son of a charismatic father, many hoped Caligula would breathe new life into Rome. At first, Caligula lived up to expectations. He brought back many people exiled by Tiberius and ceremoniously burned the records of the treason trials held by Sejanus. Mad or bad? Seven months after taking power, however, Caligula fell ill. Although he recovered, he began to act very strangely. Was he mad or just pretending? Some believe that he suffered from epilepsy, but historians are divided. Dressed in silk robes and covered in jewels, Caligula pretended he was a god. He forced senators to grovel and kiss his feet and seduced their wives at dinner parties. Dangerous to know en his eccentricities became more murderous. He restored the hated treason trials of his predecessor, executing both rivals and close allies, including the head of the Praetorian Guard, his personal protection squad. At other times, his cruelty was more random. In one instance, he was about to sacrifice an animal as a sacred offering to the gods. He raised his mallet to kill the animal and brought it down hard. At the last moment, however, he turned and struck a priest standing nearby, who died instantly. e situation gets worse All this time, Caligula was spending vast quantities of money. His extravagance soon emptied Rome s treasury, which Tiberius had greatly increased. Still spending, but now short of cash, he began blackmailing leading Roman families and confiscating their estates.
In 40 AD, he led an army north into Gaul, robbing its inhabitants before marching to the shore to invade Britain. Just as the army was about to launch its attack, he ordered them to stop and gather seashells. He called these the spoils of the conquered ocean. Meanwhile, Caligula still wanted to become a god. e same year, he ordered his statue to be erected in the Temple at Jerusalem. is would have been highly controversial in a region already prone to revolt. Luckily, Herod Agrippa, who ruled Palestine on behalf of Rome, managed to persuade Caligula to change his mind. A solution is found His behavior was making Caligula seriously unpopular among Rome s elite. Plots against his life soon became commonplace. In 41 AD, four months after he returned from Gaul, he was murdered by his closest advisors, including members of his Praetorian Guard. To prevent reprisals, they also killed his wife and daughter. Dead but certainly not mourned, Caligula was succeeded by his uncle, Claudius, the most unlikely of emperors.
Claudius Disfigured, awkward and clumsy, Claudius (10 BC 54 AD / Reigned 41 54 AD) was the black sheep of his family and an unlikely emperor. Once in place, he was fairly successful, but his poor taste in women would prove his undoing. Nobody expected Claudius to become emperor. Although he was the only surviving heir of Augustus and was the brother of the war hero, Germanicus, Claudius was a figure of fun. e black sheep Left disfigured by a serious illness when he was very young, Claudius was also clumsy and coarse, and was the butt of his family s jokes. When he dozed after dinner, guests pelted him with food and put slippers on his hands so that he d rub his eyes with his shoes when he woke up. Caligula s murder in 41 AD changed everything for Claudius. Unexpectedly, the family fool had become emperor. Discovered trembling in the palace by one of his own soldiers, he was clearly reluctant and afraid. He had good reason: like his predecessors, Claudius could never be too sure of his position. Supported mainly by soldiers and courtiers, he had a rocky relationship with the Senate. Many senators supported the abortive rebellion in the Balkans in 42 AD and they featured in many of the plots against his life. Surprisingly popular Despite these dangers, Claudius worked hard at his job, starting work just after midnight every day. It began to pay off: he made major improvements to Rome s judicial system, passed laws protecting sick slaves, extended citizenship and increased women's privileges. He also treated his people with unusual respect, apologizing to visiting pensioners when there were not enough chairs. Hardly surprising, then, that Suetonius wrote how this sort of behavior endeared him to the people. Conquering the Brits Claudius had some real successes. Britain had resisted Roman rule for over a century, but was conquered by Claudius, who created client kingdoms to protect the frontier. He had succeeded where Caesar had failed. is was the most important addition to the empire since the time of Augustus. Trouble and strife Even this success, however, was not enough to protect him from political danger. Here, his worst enemies would turn out to be his own wives. Claudius had simply awful taste in women. Although he adored his wife, Messalina, she was extravagant and promiscuous, with a particular weakness for the servants.
Claudius tried to turn a blind eye to her many affairs, but in 48 AD Messalina took a new lover, Gaius Silius, a nobleman. eir relationship was widely thought to be cover for a plot and Claudius was urged to take action: Act fast or her new man controls Rome!" Permanent separation Silius was killed and Messalina fled to a friend's villa to decide how to get herself out of trouble. It was too late. e emperor was hosting a dinner party when he heard that his wife had died. Without asking how, he called for more wine. e next year, Claudius decided to marry again, surprising Rome by choosing his own niece, Agrippina. Oh dear is was a bad mistake. Determined to make the most of her luck and happy to use any means necessary, Agrippina was about the only woman who could make Messalina seem a good catch. Agrippina began her quest for power by persuading Claudius to bring back Seneca from exile so that he could become tutor to her own son, Nero, the boy she planned to make an emperor. Speeding things up Gradually Agrippina removed all her rivals and convinced Claudius to disinherit his own son, Britannicus. With Nero now heir, the only remaining obstacle was Claudius himself. Agrippina took drastic action: as Tacitus reports, her weapon of choice was poisoned mushrooms, delivered by a faithful servant. Claudius appeared on the brink of death, but began to recover. Horrified, Agrippina signed up the emperor's own doctor to her cause. While pretending to help Claudius vomit his food, the doctor put a feather dipped in poison down his throat. As Tacitus said, "Dangerous crimes bring ample reward." Claudius was dead. Nero was Emperor. is would prove interesting.
Nero Sensitive and handsome, Nero (37 68 AD / reigned 54 68 AD) started out well as emperor. But his early promise gave way to wild extravagance and murder. His rule ended as violently as it had begun. When he became emperor, Nero was a young man who enjoyed the theater, music and horse racing. His dominating mother, Agrippina, had already murdered Claudius to see her son on the throne. She quickly poisoned Nero s main rival, Claudius son, Britannicus. But Nero didn t want to be controlled by his mother. Encouraged by his former tutor, the writer and philosopher Seneca, he began to make his own decisions. Relations with his mother became frosty and in 56 AD she was forced into retirement. Early hope dashed Nero started well. He ended secret trials and gave the Senate more independence. He banned capital punishment, reduced taxes and allowed slaves to sue unjust owners. He provided assistance to cities that had suffered disasters, gave aid to the Jews and established open competitions in poetry, drama and athletics. However, like Caligula before him, Nero had a dark side. His impulses began as simple extravagance. Before long, however, stories were circulating that he seduced married women and young boys, and that he had castrated and "married" a male slave. He also liked to wander the streets, murdering innocent people at random. Getting rid of mother Both Seneca and Agrippina tried hard to control Nero. Seneca tried to be subtle, but his mother was not. Relations between mother and son grew worse and Nero decided to kill her. He invited her to travel by boat to meet him at the seaside resort where he was staying. When their reunion was over, Agrippina left for home. She was never meant to get there, but the murder attempt failed and Agrippina swam to safety. Finishing the job Annoyed that his plot had failed, Nero abandoned subtlety and sent some soldiers to complete the job. He claimed that his mother had been plotting against him, but fooled nobody. Rome was appalled. Matricide the murder of one s own mother was among the worst possible crimes. e omens Tolerance of Nero s depravity ebbed away and Rome faced a series of bad omens. Tacitus wrote, Unlucky birds settled on the Capitol, houses fell in numerous earthquakes and the weak were trampled by the fleeing crowd."
Worse was yet to come. e Great Fire of Rome lasted for six days and seven nights. It destroyed or damaged 10 of Rome s 14 districts and many homes, shops and temples. Sing-along with Nero Nero offered to house the homeless, but it was too late. A rumor had spread of Nero s behavior during the fire: although he hadn t fiddled while Rome burned, he had been singing. With Nero s mother dead and his tutor retired, the emperor was beyond anyone s control. Rome was now victim to the arbitrary desires of a mad tyrant: there was only one solution. Murder and mayhem In 65 AD, one plotter, a freed slave named Epicharis, found a dissatisfied officer who had access to the emperor. She secretly asked him to kill Nero. Instead, the officer betrayed Epicharis and she was captured. Rather than give up the names of her fellow plotters, she killed herself. Not knowing who was involved, Nero redoubled his guard and unleashed terror on Rome. Huge numbers of people, including Seneca, were executed or forced to kill themselves. Public enemy But Rome had had enough. A revolt in the northern territories quickly spread and the Senate declared Nero a public enemy. is meant that anyone could kill him without punishment. Terrified, Nero fled to the country with his few remaining slaves and killed himself. Without any heirs, the Roman Empire now had no leader. With the ultimate prize up for grabs, rival generals began moving their troops towards Rome and civil war.
Galba Following Nero s death, Rome was plunged into chaos. Warring generals jostled for power. In the space of just over a year, three men would lead Rome before each was brutally murdered. ey were: Galba, Otho and Vitellius (ruled 68 69 AD). Servius Galba was a career politician. Born into an established, wealthy family, he became consul in 33 AD. Six years later, he held command of the Upper German Army and, in 60 AD, was appointed Governor of Nearer Spain. Marching on Rome Eight years into his governorship, Nero purged Rome of suspected plotters, killing innocent and guilty alike. Fearing for his life, Galba recruited troops and marched on Rome. By this time, Nero was already dead. With no heir to succeed him, the Senate named Galba as the new emperor. With chaos still gripping the capital, Galba moved fast to secure his position. He executed a number of highly placed Romans, including some who had pushed for him to be emperor. Dangerous enemies Galba was quick to make enemies. By rewarding his Gallic troops, he alienated the Lower Rhine Army, which proclaimed Aulus Vitellius to be the rightful Emperor. And when the Praetorian Guard asked for the money they had been promised for deserting Nero, Galba refused to pay them. is proved to be a seriously big mistake. Galba then made matters worse by ignoring his faithful supporter, Marcus Otho, and naming Lucius Piso as his successor. Death number one Otho was furious. He gained the support of the Praetorian Guard, who assassinated both Galba and Piso just seven months after Galba had been named emperor. Now it was Otho s turn to rule. He became Emperor in January 69 AD, but events were already moving against him. Rome s legions in Germany were supporting Vitellius and were marching towards Italy. Defeat and death number two Otho acted fast. He sent a naval force to southern Gaul, raised forces and went to meet his rivals. Although he was joined by more forces, the German legions were stronger. Undeterred, Otho insisted on battle. His army was heavily defeated in April and Otho killed himself.
With two emperors dead in ten months, attention turned to Vitellius. Another professional politician, Vitellius had also been elected consul, in 48 AD, and had been proconsul in Africa. Another march on Rome Vitellius was appointed commander of the Lower German Army in 68 AD, just in time for Nero s death. e following year, his troops proclaimed him emperor and the army marched on Rome. Like Galba, Vitellius wasted no time in eliminating opponents. He was the third emperor in a year of terror and Rome wanted order to be re-established. ey looked to the east. Vespasian, who commanded troops in Judaea, had also been proclaimed emperor by his troops. Death number 3 After losing a bitter battle in the streets of Rome, Vitellius considered resigning his throne, but his troops would not let him. But within months, thos same soldiers would brutally murder him. With Rome desperate for peace and most players dead, the field was now open to Vespasian.
Vespasian Vespasian (9 79 AD / ruled 69 79 AD) worked hard to restore law, order and self-respect to Rome after the civil war. He established the new, Flavian dynasty. Born to a Roman knight and tax-collector, Vespasian was a man of relatively humble origins and played on these roots to great political advantage. Distinguished service Vespasian s early career was spent mainly in military service. After distinguishing himself during the invasion of England in 43 AD, he was given his first military command. Further success led to more honors and, in 51 AD, he became consul in Britain. In 63 AD, Vespasian was appointed proconsul in Africa. Here, he controlled the budget so tightly that, on one occasion, the locals pelted him with turnips. Out of Africa Four years later, in 67 AD, Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the Jewish rebellion in Judaea. His success here, where others had failed, meant that, by 68 AD, Vespasian was one of Rome s most successful generals. His humble origins had led Nero to believe that he was no threat. While Nero was alive, this was true. Death changes everything But then Nero died. After the murder of Galba, civil war was inevitable. What s more, Vespasian had as good a claim to the throne as his two main rivals, Otho and Vitellius. In July 69 AD, Vespasian was proclaimed emperor by his troops, as well as legions in Egypt and Syria. He marched on Rome. Once in Italy, they found themselves facing Vitellius army: for the first time in 100 years, their enemy was Roman. Battleground Rome By morning, Vespasian s army had won the battle. ey ransacked a nearby town and marched on, reaching Rome in December. e city became a battleground, with its citizens caught in the crossfire. Around 50,000 people were killed before the battle was over. Vespasian had won and, with no one left to fight, he was proclaimed emperor by the Senate. Might equals right Vespasian was honest about the source of his power military strength. Using his new position to grant himself more powers, Vespasian immediately began talking up his humble origins and publishing the divine omens he
claimed had predicted his spectacular rise. Finally, he wasted no time establishing his dynasty, insisting that his two sons Titus and Domitian would succeed him. Next on the agenda was the need to restore war-torn Rome to something approaching its former glory. One of the first jobs was to raise money: Nero s extravagance and the civil war had almost ruined Rome. Rebuilding Rome By raising taxes and reclaiming public land, Vespasian was able to fill the city s vaults with cold, hard, cash. He used some of this money on a massive building program, which included temples, a theater and early work on what would become the Colosseum. He then turned his attention to the army. In a wholesale reorganization, he restored discipline, removed officers loyal to Vitellius and ended the war in Judaea. In Britain, he conquered Wales and northern England. An average Joe All the time, Vespasian was changing the traditional image of the emperor. He approached his work with an earthy humor and common sense unusual in someone of his rank. More importantly, he provided the first real stability since Claudius, 20 years earlier. Although he had gained his position through violence and was still a military dictator, he legitimized himself and his dynasty by offering Rome a stable, peaceful future. Becoming a god By 79 AD, Vespasian was dying, but his sense of humor remained intact. "Oh dear!" he joked, mocking the Roman tendency to turn dead emperors into gods, "I think I'm becoming a god." Vespasian had brought Rome through bitter civil war and left the empire stronger than ever. But by declaring, "My sons will succeed me, or no one will, Vespasian had ignored history and his own experience. Like his predecessors, he insisted on tying Rome to the lottery of hereditary rule.
Titus and Domitian e two sons of Vespasian Titus and Domitian (ruled 79 81 AD, and 81 96 AD respectively) could not have been more different as emperors. Although Titus had a reputation for ruthlessness, he would prove to be a fair ruler. His brother Domitian, however, returned Rome to tyranny and fear. Like father, like son Vespasian s eldest son, Titus, was already a successful politician and general before his father became emperor. He had seen action in Britain and commanded a legion in Judaea under his father. When Nero died, Titus had actively encouraged his father to claim the throne. When Vespasian left Judaea to march on Italy, he left Titus in charge of his campaign against the Jewish rebels. Second-in-command Here Titus proved his abilities. He successfully crushed the rebels and, in 70 AD, captured and destroyed the temple in Jerusalem. When he returned home to Rome, he was made commander of the Praetorian Guard. He led the military arm of Vespasian s dictatorship and was effectively head of state. is role, along with his reputation for ruthlessness, did nothing for his popularity. His relationship with his mistress Berenice, a Jewish princess, didn t help. Romans remembered Marc Antony and Cleopatra and they were not prepared for another marriage to Eastern royalty. A pleasant surprise Given the bloodshed by which Vespasian had gained the throne and Titus own reputation, Romans had good reason to fear this succession. But there was no need. Power was handed over peacefully and Titus was a surprisingly good ruler. Good-looking, cultivated and friendly, Titus was a calm and fair emperor. Much of his popularity was won through his generosity. is included financial aid after the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD and reconstruction work in Rome after a fire the following year. He also completed work on the Colosseum and opened it with 100 days of games, wisely using this to calm the Roman mob during a time of economic hardship. Death and Domitian Against all expectations, Titus was a benevolent ruler. However, his reign was short-lived just two years after he took the throne, he was dead. Rome now faced a very different dictator.
Bust of Domitian Domitian, Vespasian s youngest son, was already known for wild excess. In 70 AD, his actions during military service in Germany had required a pardon from his father. It was even rumored that he had helped speed his brother Titus towards his death. Master and God As emperor, Domitian was hated by the Roman aristocracy, largely because of his cruelty and showiness. He insisted on being addressed as master and god. He held games every four years, as the Greeks did. He would attend these in Greek dress and a golden crown. His fellow judges had to wear crowns that featured images of the gods and Domitian himself. A revolt in Germany in 89 AD was put down with extreme brutality; in Rome, this was used as an excuse to terrorize senators and other leading figures. Proving himself every bit as bad as Nero and Caligula, Domitian launched treason trials, and executed or banished even his mildest critics. Domitian had wisely given the army a large pay rise in 84 AD and this certainly helped secure his position. But it was not enough. In 96 AD, he was murdered by a group that included senior Praetorian Guards, palace officials and even the emperor s own wife. e army was furious, but Rome was happy enough. e latest in a long line of tyrants had also been deposed.
Nerva and Trajan Domitian s murder marked the end of the Flavian dynasty and changed the rules of succession. Nerva and Trajan (ruled 96 98 AD, 98 117 AD) were not born to rule, but were chosen for the job. e results were remarkably successful. Nerva became emperor immediately after Domitian s murder in 96 AD. He had a lifetime of service to Rome and its emperors, and had served as consul twice, in 71 and 90 AD. Now he was called to higher office. He immediately promised an end to the tyranny of Domitian s rule, swearing that he would never execute any senator, whatever the provocation. Promises, promises is promise was soon stretched to its limits. Domitian had bought the army s loyalty with large pay rises and when he was murdered, it was furious. Seeking revenge, the Praetorian Guard stormed the palace and demanded that those responsible be executed. Nerva faced the soldiers, offering his own life by baring his neck to their swords. e soldiers just laughed and went on to kill many of his friends and allies. Astonishingly, Nerva thanked them for carrying out justice, but he had been badly humiliated. His will broken, he died soon afterwards. Bust of Trajan the Emperor A sharp turn At this point history took a sharp turn. Shortly before Nerva died, Roman generals had debated who should be the next emperor. ey chose Trajan, a former army commander, senator and governor of Upper Germany. e first emperor to have been born outside Italy, Trajan came from southern Spain. His nomination by the generals was a bold and important move, signaling that educated and wealthy men from all over the empire were eligible for the highest office. Expanding the empire It was also very successful. As emperor, Trajan expanded the Roman Empire to become larger than ever before. He conquered Dacia (now part of Romania), which provided land for Roman settlers and rich pickings from gold and salt mines. He then attacked the Parthians, Rome s old enemy in the East, who lived in what is now part of Iran. By 115 AD, he had captured the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon and had reached the Persian Gulf.
e Roman Empire now stretched across Europe and the Middle East, from the borders of Scotland to southern Spain. It included North Africa, western and central Europe, and what is now Israel, Turkey, Lebanon, Syria and parts of Iran and Iraq. It would never be bigger. Good governance Back home, Trajan was just as busy. He treated the Senate with respect and tried to find competent and honest officials to rule the provinces. With the army, Trajan was fair but strict, ordering the execution of the Praetorian Guard who had defied Nerva. With the Christians, he ignored those who wanted them persecuted and, instead, treated them like other citizens, punishing them only when they deserved it. Welfare and public works He was generous to Rome s population, giving out cash and increasing the number of poor citizens who could receive free grain. Trajan also began a massive program of public works, building bridges, harbors and aqueducts. Finally, he reduced taxes and started a new welfare program for poor children. is work brought him acclaim from many, including the statesman and author, Pliny the Younger. Trajan held onto power until 117 AD. His civilized rule set the tone for future generations; his expansion of the Roman Empire made it a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic melting pot that is still relevant today, 2,000 years later.