Lecture 6: The Umayyad Caliphate and tensions of empire

Lecture 6: The Umayyad Caliphate and tensions of empire

Review: history history history Regional context of Asia, Arabia and Mecca Story of Muhammad and revelation The political implications of Muhammad s message

Broad aim of today s lecture: To discuss transition in Islam from provincial religious ideology to cosmopolitan imperial project

Why more history? Creation of Islamic civilisation as significant to Islam as teachings of Muhammad Development of Catholic and Protestant Church in Europe as significant as teachings of Jesus Cannot understand Islam without understanding Caliphate

Islam s historical geography Islamic empire Islam s centre of gravity A world religion with a specific geography Like Rome for South American Catholics Like Jerusalem for American Jews

The Caliphate Office of rightful succession. From the root Khalafa - to follow Caliph translated as successor or representative

Who has the right to succeed a prophet? Many tensions surround this issue Islam has few divisions in terms of doctrine Issue of succession a source of deep division Reason: inherent tension between the political and religious dimensions of Muhammad s message

Specific aim of today s lecture: Draw out the implications of this tension on the development of the Islamic civilisation.

Four Phases of the Caliphate The Rashidun (632-661) The Umayyad Caliphate (661-750) The Abbasid Caliphate (750-833) The late Abbasid period (833-945)

This lecture: The Rashidun and the Umayyad s Can see tensions of Islam expressed in two ways: Tensions 1: who has the right to lead the umma? Tensions 2: how should the umma be defined?

Tension 1: Who has the right to lead the umma? A religious question: what qualities does one need to be Caliph? Echoed long-standing divisions Divide between original Muslims and Qurayshi aristocracy

Tension exacerbated by unique political context Community no longer Muslim tribes of Arabia Included expanding political empire. Tension between original vs. later converts reflects deeper tension One invested in spiritual vision ( original ) One with more practical/political outlook ( later ) Both world views within Islam

Arabian invaders all agreed new empire should be Muslim and should be lead by Caliph But what a Muslim empire is and who has the authority to lead it a fraught and open question.

Rashidun Period characterised by leadership of the four rightly guided caliphs 1. Abu Bakr 2. Umar 3. Uthman 4. Ali

Abu-Bakr Positions himself as successor Not rightful heir of prophecy No prophetic insight himself I have been given the authority over you, and I am not the best of you. If I do well, help me; and if I do wrong, set me right. Obey me so long as I obey God and His Messenger But if I disobey God and His Messenger, you owe me no obedience

Umar Abu-Bakr favoured early Muslims, Medinans and descendents Umar similar: Islamic conception of Caliphate Bestowed political favour on early companions Patronised those perceived to have fidelity to Muhammad and Muslim values

Uthman Meccan aristocrat Favoured those in his clan (Umayyads) Reassertion of traditional Arabian aristocracy Commissioned standard edition of Quran Angered early Muslims: rightful custodians of religious matters

Assassination and crisis Uthman assissinated 656 Challenged by coalition of forces around Ali Muawiya refuses to acknowledge Ali as Caliph Battles between followers of Ali and Muawiya Ali assassinated Muawiya rises to Caliphate Umayyad Caliphate established with capital in Damascus

Significance of crisis Ali s followers: Islamic view of Caliphate Favoured direct lineage Ali rightful Caliph and descendents should succeed him Reject traditional forms of election Rationale: would reinstate Quraysh aristocracy Mantle of Muhammad usurped by Quraysh Followers of Ali come to be known as Alids Tradition eventually known as Shia or Shi ite

Kharajites Hard-line Islamic view of Caliphate Caliph should be elected by umma Should be a sinless Shia and Kharajis understood Caliph to be spiritual leader Should not be compromised by politics or political expedience Should model and promote the teachings of the prophet

Followers of Muawiya Accept idea that religious leadership has political dimension It is right and proper for religious authorities to be involved in political matters Followers eventually come to be called Sunnis

Significance of early struggles Tension over who has right to lead umma What qualities must a Caliph embody? Must Caliph be purely religious? Can they involve themselves in political matters? To what extent are religious and politics entwined? To what extent are original Muslims more faithful to Islam than later converts?

Tension 2: How should the Umma be defined? Tension 1: who has the right to lead the Muslim community? Tension 2: what is the Muslim community anyway? How does one create an imperial state whose defining characteristic is that it is Islamic? Examine this question through the Ummayad Caliphate

The Umayyads and their subjects Invasions a shock to the region Old imperial cultures that defined region gone Nomadic pastoralists in change

Principles of Umar Muslim Arabs would: Not damage the agricultural society they had just conquered Cooperate with local nobles and chiefs Principles defined the nature of Ummayad rule

Significance and implications Kept local economy in tact and productive. No major disruption to local power systems Local notables, landowners and chiefs remain in control

Garrison Towns Communal barracks Sited on the edge of settlements Armies quickly mobilised Threatening presence Remains of Fustat outside Cairo

High cast military elites Garrison towns maintained Arab elite status Arabs kept themselves separate from locals Not involved with day-to-day politics Appropriated surplus Also re-distributed

Myth of forced conversion Arabs ambivalent if not hostile to conversion Arabs ruling military elite Did not want formal association between ruler and ruled Muslims also not taxed Division illustrates tension over who constitutes the umma

Power and patronage Local nobles, military elites and imperial administrators mostly non- Arab Non-Arabs responsible for running and servicing empire Non-Arab warriors and nobles (muwali)

Muwali How to absorb political class into tribal structures of loyalty Become Arab clients (muwali) Traditional tribal system for incorporating outsiders Tribal protection in exchange for loyalty Muwali considered Inferior Many muwali convert to Islam Muwali high-standing roles but no political status

Muwali Arab division highlights tension of umma Ummayad empire essentially Arab in character Defined itself in Arab rather than Muslim terms If muwali allowed status then nothing to maintain Arabs as privileged class

Umayyad decline Death of Muawiya (680): more civil wars Shia and Khajari challenges Caliphate re-established by Abdel Malik Umayyad focus on consolidating empire Attempt to create stronger political and cultural solidarity Did this in two ways:

Disarmed garrison towns Changed nature of towns No longer have military function Soldiers incorporate other forms of income Commerce: open shops, become merchants, inter-marry Distinctions between Arab and non-arab breaks down Creates seedbed for integrated cosmopolitan political community

Patronised court culture Used court to develop Islamic high culture Purpose: to foster political solidarity Borrowed symbols from Persian, Byzantine, Greek, Egyptian and Turkish traditions Reinterpreted them with Islamic sensibility Poetry, Literature, Dress, Coins New form of Islamic architecture

Dome of the Rock

Reflects Roman/Byzantine temple structure Sketch of Byzantine chapel Church of St. George, Anatolia

Mosques architecture Integrate symbols from past imperial traditions Architecture Byzantine and Roman Decorations and mosaics Persian tradition Given Islamic sensibility Carefully chosen Quranic inscriptions Key motif: Islam binds all traditions together

Dome of Rock Inscriptions

Grand mosque Damascus

Greek influences

Greek Influences

Also molding distinctive Islamic form

Success of Caliphate Begins forging unique Islamic identity Integrates Islamic ideals into political system Establishes institutions of social welfare Hospitals and support for needy and poor World s first welfare state (Crone, 2005) Not an oppressive regime Created authoritative version of the Quran

Failure of Caliphate Attachment to elite status Abdel Malik and successors unable to undermine entrenched status of Arabs Would require social and political revolution

Umayyad empire essentially Arab Umayyad entrenched in traditional tribal systems Instrumental in establishment of Islamic empire But rule characterised by: Social and political aloofness Commitment to Arab identity Would prove to be the dynasty s downfall Umayyad outlook exemplified in royal palaces

Built on edge of desert Qasr Amra (present day Jordan)

Extensive baths Trappings of luxury Few indoor kitchens Small bedrooms Monuments of imperial power But steeped in Bedouin taste Roman Bath in Qasr Amar

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