Grace Episcopal Church Adult Forum A Brief Introduction to Islam Worldwide, approximately 1.5 billion people are adherents of Islam, approximately the same number of Buddhists, second only to Christianity. The vast majority of Muslims do not live in Arabic or Middle Eastern countries, but in Africa and Asia. ESSENTIALS OF ISLAM Islam = surrender or voluntary submission to God. A Muslim is one who submits to God (Allah). The words Islam and Muslim are related to several words for peace such as the Arabic word salam and the Hebrew word shalom. The terms suggest that inner peace is attained by surrender to the divine. Islam also connotes the community of all believers, suggesting inclusion in a large family. As the Qur an says, the believers are a band of brothers. God: belief in an all-powerful transcendent God who has created the universe and who controls it down to the smallest detail. Islam is a cousin to Christianity and Judaism, all monotheistic, and all worshiping the same God. However, God s power and transcendence receive much greater emphasis in Islam. It is hard for non-muslims to understand the degree to which Muslims believe God controls daily life ( if God wills ). Muslims refer to God as Allah, a contraction of al (the) and ilah (God), meaning the God or God. Muslims explain that the word Allah is not the name of God, it simply means God Allah has 99 names (e.g., the Just, the Merciful, the Compassionate. Allah is not abstract, not just an impersonal force, but has characteristics of personal being. In the Qur an Allah describes himself as personal, caring, all-knowing, all-seeing, and all-powerful. Although referred to in Islam as male, God has no gender. Several times per day a cantor (muezzin) calls people to prayer, declaring that Allah is great, greater than anything else. The chanted voice suggests that God is as active in the world as sound is active in the air. The physical posture of prostration during prayer symbolizes the Muslim attitude of total surrender to God. There is only one God (Allah) (Editorial comment: English-speaking people call the divine God; Spanish-speaking people refer to the divine as Diós; German-speaking people call the divine Gott; French people call the divine Dieu; in Latin the divine is referred to as Dei; in Greek, the term is Theos. In Arabic, the divine is called Allah. This is not a foreign or substitute god, a deity other than the God worshiped by Jews and Christians, but the Arabic term for God.) God is one and incomparable, and the purpose of human existence is to worship God. Islam is understood to be the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times and places in the past, including to Adam, Abraham, Moses, and the virgin born Jesus, all of whom were great prophets. However, these previous manifestations of the faith were changed and corrupted through human influence. Unlike these distortions of ancient truth, the Qur an is understood to be the unaltered and final revelation of God. Angels: Belief in angels is essential to Islam. Angels are messengers who do not possess free will, but worship God in total obedience. Angels duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person s actions, and taking a person s soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on behalf of humans. Prophets: God has spoken repeatedly in human beings (prophets) revealing his mind and will. Divine revelation began just after creation when God spoke to Adam and Eve. The 1
revelation continued through Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims do not believe in the divinity of Jesus or in the Trinity. Both Judaism and Christianity express true revelation from God, but both religions have contaminated God s word with human understanding. It was Muhammad who freed the divine message from human error and offered it to all people in pure form. Because he is the last and greatest figure in the long line of prophets, Muhammad is called the seal of the prophets. Resurrection and Judgment: Belief in the day of resurrection is essential to Islam. The time of resurrection is preordained by God, but not known by humans. The Qur an speaks of a bodily resurrection, a concept quite different from the pre-islamic Arabic understanding of death. All humankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds. Several sins are certain to condemn a person to hell: disbelief and dishonesty (although God may choose to forgive the sins of those who repent). Good deeds, such as charity and prayer, will be rewarded with entry into heaven a place of joy and bliss. Predestination: God has full knowledge and control over all that happens. Everything in the world that happens, good and evil, has been preordained and cannot happen without God s permission. However, humans have free will and are responsible for their own actions. The Five Pillars of Islam: Central to Islam is adherence to the Five Pillars of Islam, a set of basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship. Shahadah: bearing witness believing and testifying to others that there is no God but God (Allah), and Muhammad is his prophet. I testify there are no deities other than God alone and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God. Salat: prayer Expected to pray 5 times per day at specific periods: dawn, mid morning, mid day, afternoon, and mid evening while facing in the direction of Mecca. On Friday the prayer is to take place at a mosque with other Muslim believers. Zakat: almsgiving Those who have financial resources are to give alms; not required of the poor. In countries with Islamic governments the Zakat is collected at a fixed percentage in the form of a tax. Giving to the poor is a Muslim duty, with or without a formal system of taxation. Sawm: fasting During Ramadan (9 th month in the Islamic calendar) Muslims engage in an exceptional fast. The purpose of the fast is to allow Muslims to concentrate on their faith and spend less time on the concerns of daily life. During Ramadan: no eating, drinking, smoking, and no sexual intercourse during daylight hours. Tasks are to read, pray, and do good deeds. If one is traveling, sick, or a nursing mother, exceptions are made. Hajj: pilgrimage Those who can afford the trip and are physically able are expected to make a pilgrimage to Mecca during Dhul-Hijjah, the twelfth month in the Islamic calendar, at least once in their lives. Law and Jurisprudence: The Sharia ( the path leading to the watering place ) is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship. According to Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will and constitutes a system of laws which all Muslims are obligated to follow. These laws cover all aspects of life from matters of state to daily living, providing guidance on a wide range of topics from banking and welfare to warfare and the environment. Dietary restrictions: forbidden is: meat from animals killed in sacrifice to a pagan deity, pork, carrion (dead animals), or any carnivorous animal (including birds of prey). Animals must 2
be slaughtered by Islamic law instructions. Additional unclean animals were added later: monkeys, elephants, donkeys. Consumption of alcohol, non-medicinal drugs, and blood are also prohibited. SACRED TEXTS Almost all teachings of Islam can be found within two primary texts: the Qur an (Koran) and the Sunnah. The Qur an is the centerpiece of Islam, the supreme revelation of God s word in written form. It is approximately the same length as the Christian New Testament; some people memorize all of it. The Qur an is the compilation of revelations bestowed upon Muhammad by Allah through the voice of Gabriel. It is considered to be divinely inspired and authored, the eternal, absolute, and irrevocable word of God. According to Muslims, there is literally a copy of the Qur an in heaven that Gabriel read to Muhammad, a tablet on which God s word is recorded and kept in heaven forever. Copies of the Qur an are handled with great care, stored with great care, and read with expectation of rewards in proportion to how much one reads. Hebrew and Christian scriptures are viewed as inspired texts, but are seen as less inspired than the Qur an. In cases where the Qur an disagrees with Hebrew or Christian texts, the Qur an is the true and perfect revelation, because the other texts have been corrupted by human influence. Much of the Qur an s teaching assumes the theology of the Jewish-Christian texts: monotheism, sin, angels, demons, Satan, judgment, afterlife as well as the historicity of the biblical stories, miracles, and messengers. The prophets who preceded Muhammad are acknowledged. The Qur an is divided into 114 chapters, containing 6,236 verses in all. After the Opening, the chapters are arranged in order of decreasing length. Each chapter has a number and a title, typically based on a key word or theme in the chapter: The Women (4); The Cave (18); The Moon (54). The chapters are identified with two periods: those revealed to Muhammad in Mecca and those revealed at Medina. In the Meccan chapters Muhammad criticizes the Meccan status quo, its idolatry, social injustice, and other evils. In the Medinan chapters the material describes Muhammad s role as community leader, and addresses legal issues, matters to do with building the structures of state, and inter-ethnic and inter-religious relations. A major emphasis in the Qur an is a holistic theology claiming authority over all aspects of life, allowing no separation between secular and sacred. The material includes moral parables, allegories, legal passages, sarcasm, humor, and argumentation. The Sunnah or Hadith contains customs and religious practices based on the teachings and practices of Muhammad. Some believers claim this material was recorded by Muhammad s early followers, while others assume it was written considerably later. Although not considered to be of divine or prophetic origin, the Sunnah is highly revered as a guide for Muslims who seek to live the way Muhammad intended. Muhammad (570-632) Muhammad was born in Mecca around 570. His father died just prior to Muhammad s birth and his mother died when he was a child. Following his mother s death he lived with his grandfather until the grandfather s death two years later. The rest of his childhood was spent with an uncle, Abu Talib. Most information about Muhammad comes from his sermons and the 3
revelations recorded in the Qur an (recitation), and from the Hadith (recollections, narratives) the remembrances of him by his early followers. Before the rise of Islam, the religions of the Arabian Peninsula were Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and numerous local deities (tree spirits, mountain spirits, tribal gods, and genies). The supreme God, Allah, was an object of faith but not an object of cult or ritual. Most Arabs were members of nomadic tribes with little interest in any divine power. The majority of nomads believed that whatever happened to them was determined by fate, merely the course of events. However, both Christianity and Judaism had communities in Medina and western Arabia, which means that some Jewish and Christian beliefs would have been familiar. In addition to the nomadic tribes there were also city dwellers actively engaged in commercial enterprises. By the end of the 6 th century the merchants of Mecca had gained a tight monopoly on trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. At the time Muhammad was born Mecca was already a center of religious pilgrimage. Long before Muhammad s time a black meteorite had fallen to earth and was venerated because it had come from heaven. A Kabah ( cube ) had been built to contain it, and by the time of Muhammad as many as 360 religious images of tribal gods and goddesses had been placed in the Kabah. Some Islamic historians believe that Muhammad s grandfather had been custodian of the Kabah. According to tradition, there were also 24 statues perhaps associated with the Zodiac standing around the central square of Mecca. By this time yearly pilgrimages to Mecca were quite common. Each year during the four-month season of pilgrimage, a truce was observed by the numerous Arabian tribes. As an adult Muhammad worked as a caravan driver for a widow named Khadijah who had inherited a caravan company from her deceased husband. A romance developed between Khadijah and Muhammad and they were married around 595 when he was 25 and she was around 40. The marriage brought financial, spiritual, and emotional support to Muhammad. The couple had six children, but no son (who would have been his hereditary successor) survived to adulthood. After Khadijah s death Muhammad married several times, reportedly out of compassion for the women who had no means of support. Muhammad was intrigued by the various religions he encountered in his work as a caravan driver, and he made frequent retreats to caves in the hills surrounding Mecca to meditate and pray. At age 40, around 610, while on retreat in a cave at Mount Hira he received his first revelation. According to the Qur an a bright presence came to him and held before his eyes a cloth covered with writing. The voice commanded him three times to recite what was written on the cloth: Recite in the name of the Lord who created who created man from clots of blood. Recite! Your Lord is the Most Bountiful One, who by the pen taught man what he did not know. Indeed, man transgresses in thinking himself his own master; for to your Lord all things return. Prostrate yourself and come nearer. This initial revelation contained three distinct messages: God is One (Allah), all-powerful, merciful, and in control of the course of events. On the Last Day God will judge people according to their acts and assign them to heaven or hell. God expects those who are wealthy to be generous with their resources. Initially Muhammad doubted this revelation, wondering if it were madness, hallucination, or demonic apparition. He talked with his wife Khadijah who encouraged him to accept his experience as true communication from God. After considerable reflection, and a subsequent 4
similar experience, he became convinced the revelations were from God, and that the bright presence and voice were the angel Gabriel. Gradually he began sharing his vision with people he trusted: his wife, cousin Ali, and his friend Abu Bakr. This small group are considered the first Muslims. When Muhammad began sharing his visions more openly with others, reactions were mixed. His message about the value of honesty, kindness, care for the poor, and protection of the weak were considered benign and non-threatening. But his other declarations were much less popular: that the one and only God, Allah, should be worshiped; and that Allah prohibited usury. The merchants of Mecca vigorously objected to the Qur an s criticism of their lucrative economic practices and spoke fondly of the old pagan gods who had no problem their monopoly and usury practices. Muhammad further antagonized his opposition by reminding them of famous prophets in earlier times who had been vindicated by God after the people rejected their teaching. (Noah, Lot, Sodom, Moses).. Around 620 Muhammad had a powerful vision of himself being taken to Jerusalem and from there ascending into paradise. Guided on this Night Journey or Night of Ascent by the angel Gabriel, he encountered angels and the great prophets of the past, including Abraham and Jesus, and was eventually ushered into God s presence. This vision convinced Muhammad that he was indeed a prophet and messenger from God. The angry opposition to Muhammad s message grew to the point of ridicule and persecution, prompting him and his small group eventually to flee from Mecca and settle in Yathrib, three hundred miles north of Mecca. This migration (hijra) is a central event in the history of Islam, marking the start of the Islamic community. The Muslim calendar begins with Hijra as year 1. In this new territory, many people accepted Muhammad as a prophet (perhaps he was the messiah the Jews talked about) and aligned themselves with him in a federation comprised of converts and the immigrants from Mecca (approximately 70 men and their families). However, many locals distrusted his message and became adversarial. The Jews living in the Fertile Crescent allied with these political enemies because the Muslims recognized Jesus as a prophet and disputed the completeness and correctness of Hebrew scripture. At Medina the religion of Islam took shape. The first mosque was established in Yathrib where many early rules about worship and social regulation were worked out. The main ritual forms were worship (prayer), almsgiving, fasting (for the whole month of Ramadan), and the pilgrimage to Mecca (including ceremonies at neighboring sites). Yathrib (now Medina), along with Jerusalem and Mecca became one of the three most sacred cities of Islam. Muhammad continued receiving messages at Medina, some of which were legal guidelines that he and his followers recognized as superior to customary Arabic values (e.g., an orderly means for inheritance and a strong prohibition against incest). Continuing tension between Arabs and Jews in Medina resulted in Muhammad expelling two Jewish clans and executing the men of a third clan. Within a few years Muhammad s growing and well-organized group of followers became engaged in hostilities with the pagans back in Mecca, and by 630 were strong enough to conquer Mecca. He and his troops took control of the city, destroyed all images in Kabah and the marketplace, and began to institutionalize his religious ideals. Muhammad was a benevolent conqueror who won over many to Islam. Numerous tribes became Muslims and joined his federation, placing him solidly in the role of head of state. He eventually extended his territory in Arabia, and had plans to extend his religious influence into Syria at the time of his death in 632. In his final sermon he urged followers to look beyond tribal loyalties and to recognize the brotherhood of all believers. Muhammad and his followers saw him as the last of the long line of prophets who transmitted God s word to humanity. Neither he nor his followers considered him divine, but 5
saw him as the last and greatest prophet: an instrument in the hands of God, a messenger transmitting God s will to the human world. Many Muslims see him as a man who showed perfection in his life, and revere him as an ideal human being, a model for all believers. Muhammad was succeeded by Abu Bakr who urged the people to continue in the path established by Muhammad: He who honors Muhammad must know that he is dead. But he who honors the God of Muhammad must know that he is living and immortal. Abu Bakr was known as the caliph, the successor or deputy of Muhammad. Disagreements among believers about Muhammad s legitimate successor and the process of succession should be determined eventually resulted in a major schism (described below). The nomadic Arabic tribes had a long history of conducting raids against neighboring communities. During and after the life of Muhammad these raids were conducted in the direction of Syria and Iraq to acquire domestic animals and other bounty. The raids were highly successful and continued to expand the Muslim reach farther and farther from Mecca. Within twelve years after the death of Muhammad the Muslims had occupied Egypt, Syria, Iraq, westward into Libya, and eastward into what is now Iran. Despite limited and occasional internal strife and tension, expansion continued for a century, most of it in a benevolent manner. Westward, the Muslims occupied North Africa to the Atlantic, crossed into Spain, and into southern France. Northward, they raided as far as Constantinople, although they failed to occupy any of Asia Minor. Eastward, they occupied all of Persia and Afghanistan, entered central Asia and crossed into modern Pakistan. Until 750 this vast area remained a single state ruled by the caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty. Many who did not convert to Islam became protected minorities who were allowed to practice their own religion, maintain their own internal affairs, and were required to pay taxes to the Muslims. Although the military expeditions were not for the purpose of making religious converts, but for acquiring bounty, many of the protected minorities gradually converted to Islam. Over the next 500 years Islamic culture systematically evolved and became more established. Islamic law (Sharia), based on teachings from the Qur an and the example of Muhammad, occupied a central place as the basis of the social structure. The study of law became the core of Islamic higher education. Many Greek books were translated into Arabic, contributing significantly to advances in science, literature, and the arts. THE UNITY AND VARIETY OF ISLAM Two basic groups: Sunni and Shi a. Origin of the two groups can be traced back to the question of how Muhammad was to be succeeded as leader of the Muslim community. Sunnis (85% + of all Muslims) answered: no one could succeed Muhammad in his nature and quality as prophet because the Qur an finalized and perfected the revelation of divine guidance and declared Muhammad to be the seal of the prophets. Muhammad s successor could be only a guardian of the prophetic legacy, a caliph with subordinate authority as leader of the believers responsible for administration of community affairs in obedience to the Qur an. The caliph would be selected by consensus from among the male members of the Quraish tribe to which Muhammad belonged. The Sunnis developed a comprehensive system of community law (Sharia). Shi a Muslims believe that Muhammad instituted a cycle of initiation for the continuing guidance of the community by approving an imam as his successor. The imam was invested with the qualities of inspired and infallible interpretation of the Qur an. 6
The first imam was Ali, Muhammad s cousin, his adopted son, and his son-in-law by marriage to Fatima. The Shi a believe that Ali inherited Muhammad s spiritual abilities and was infallible in his interpretation of the Quar an and lea leadership of the community. Ali passed these qualities on to the two sons of his marriage with Fatima, and then on to their descendants in the line of imams. This cycle of hereditary succession will continue until the end of human history when humankind will be resurrected on the Last Day and judged for the afterlife. Sunni Islam tends to be more concerned to create and preserve structures of society within which the community may fulfill its God-given responsibilities. Shi a Islam searches for answers in a more esoteric interpretation of the Qur an. Both, however, are concerned with the inner life and the outer life. Sufism Whereas Sunnis and Shia represent the major doctrinal varieties of Islam, Sufism denotes the inner spiritual life of both. Sufis may be either Sunni or Shia, seeking intimacy with God through a disciple of spiritual purification. The heart of Sufism is the love of God, built on the Qur anic assurance that God loves the God-fearing. Sufis believe that the human endeavor is incomplete unless fulfilled by divine love. Sufi denotes a person whose heart is purified from the pollution of this world. The Sufi is he who is dead to the self and lives by the truth, having escaped from the human faculties and has truly attained to God. According to Muhammad, the highest level of jihad is the inward striving of the soul for purification. Every stage/rung on the spiritual ladder must be fulfilled by special grace which God bestows on the heart of the seeker. The destination of the path is intimacy with God. 7