The Public Sermon: Pul s Cross nd the culture of persusion Englnd, 1534 1570 W, J. TORRANCE KIRBY McGill University L tribune en p1cm ir située dns l encete de I cthédrle St-Pul de Londres, et connue sous le nom de l croix de Pul >, compte prmi les plus importnts lieux publics de I Angleterre de l Rensnce, Dns une société oü Ic sermon étit Ic vecteur prcipl d éduction des dultes, de direction morle et de controle politique, I croix de Pul constituit I tribune ultime, voire l tribune publique de l Angleterre elle-méme. Elle ttit de longue trdition le lieu des proclmtions ifficielles civiles et religieuses. Les tervennts düment pprouves y exposient les politiques gouvernementles et y denonçient les hérésies et les rebellions. Pourtnt, l oppose de l bbye royle de Westmster, St-Pul pprtenit dvntge ux sujets qu à l monrchic. En dépit du reglement officiel, l croix de Pul o,ffrit unforum populirefvornt l exposition de divers pots de vue dns le dome turbulent des idées religieuses et politiques. Des le xiii siècle, l encete cthédrle vit etc le lieu prtfért des protesttions populires, un endroit oü le peuple pouvit donner libre cours ses dolcnces, et oil les enjeux vitux de I ntion prenient corps. On dit que e l Reforme ngle s etitfite I croix de Pul >>. Dns cc cs, quel étit le role du sermon public dns I formtion du public religieux et des identités de 1 Angleterre de 1 Cpoque? Qui étient les prcipux gents et cteurs? Comment étient constituts les uditoires? Quelles sont les ruptures et les contuités dns l utiltion de cette tribune publique u cours des differentes etpes de l Reforme ngle, du regne d Henri VIII celui d Elizbeth 1? Rensnce nd Reformtion / Rensnce et Réforme 3,1, Wter/biver zoos On the 11 th ofjuly 1533, Clement VII excommunicted Henryvm response to Archbhop Thoms Crnmer s nnulment ofthe Kg s mrrige to Kthere ofargon nd h ensug corontion of Anne Boleyn) Clement s ction nd the officil response by the Kg nd Privy Council constitute strikg moment of high-stkes politicl drm lden with significnce for the future defition nd formtion of religious identities erly-modern Englnd. Ppl exerce of spirit ul jurdiction such circumstnces presupposed the concept of the so-clled plenitude ofpower (plenitudo potestt), whereby spiritul nd temporl uthority were bound together hierrchicl reltion. By mens of ritulized, scrmentl
4 W. J. TORRANCE KIRBY the Public Sermon ct Clement (representg the old horizon of meng) succeeded cuttg the thred ofhierrchy which lked Henry nd through him, h entire relm to the scrmentlly ter-connected frmework tht ws Chrtendom. Correspondgly, by virtue of h dmnt defce of ppl jurdiction, Henry (representg n emergg new horizon ) confirmed th momentous brek of the bond of union between the temporl nd spiritul orders, The excommuniction of Henry my be viewed symboliclly s decive step the trnsition to modernity; deed it rgubly n rchetypicl stnce of the dsolution of the received sense of the cosmos s coherent, unified, nd contuous order ofspiritul/eternl nd externl/ temporl relms nd powers process Mx Weber defed s the denchntment of the world. Through their jot ction, perhps dvertently both cses, the two rulers successfully shttered the long-ssumed morl frmework ofhierrchicl order the ontologicl horizon of Chrtendom, so to spek with which Henry nd h subjects hd, until then, lived out their religious lives. In effect, through sgle, simple scrmentl ct nd through determed ssertion of politicl will to ignore tht ct, Clement nd Henry together set motion sequence of events which would result the eventul nnulment of the scrmentl itself s the governg hermeneuticl frmework of religious self-understndg. In their dpute over the locus ofsupreme ecclesticl jurdiction, the Reformtion nd with it modernity ws both figurtively nd effectively lunched Englnd. There ongog debte mong Reformtion htors whether the enctment of the royl supremcy ws of merely externl politicl significnce, n djustment of religious orgniztion t the level of constitutionl order kgs nd queens messg bout s Chrtopher High once put it or, lterntively, ws trsiclly theologicl nd brodly metphysicl scope, nd therefore represented fund mentl revion ofreligious identity. 3 Ws Henry s clim to the title of ecclesticl hedship merely nked ct of power with no vible morl bs? Clement Armstrong, n vnt-grde Protestnt the circle of Thoms Cromwell, 4 In the cse of Ethn Shgn hs shown tht evngelicls could be strongly supportive ofthe new politicl theology.5 At the sme time, the phenomenon commonly described s Henric Ctholicm refers to scrmentl religiosity where much remed the sme spite of the trnsfer of supreme ecclesticl power from the Bhop ofrome to the Kg. 6 Although roundly rejected by such s Sir Thoms More nd John Fher, th deeply conservtive brnd of reform ws the contemporry view promoted by survivors like Stephen Grder nd Edmund Bonner. 7 Although the monsteries were dsolved, the Mss remed, s did the splendour of ritul; clericl celibcy ws reffirmed nd privte msses, uriculr confession, nd much else besides conveyed sense of contuity with lte-medievl religious identity, especilly fter the enctment 539 of the Sttute of the Six Articles 8 nd the fll of Thoms Cromwell 154o. Yet t root the question would pper to hve much to do with first prciples of religious identity, tht to sy, with cert fundmentl hermeneuticl ssumptions nd wht Chrles Tylor hs identified s morl ontology. By their respective ctions, Henry nd Clement itited the conditions for rdicl trnsformtion of Englh religious identity which fct proved irreversible. Most significnt from the stndpot ofthe present quiry, th dpute over jurdiction ws the occsion for the explosive growth of virtully unprecedented culture of persusion diversely mnifest both prt (s, e.g., sermons, pmphlets nd trcts, prted proclmtions, prlimentry sttutes) s well s vrious other publicly stged productions (the prechg ofsermons, performnce of plys, public trils nd executions, nd forml dputtions) ll of which effectively combed the middle yers of the sixteenth century to fill n cresgly conspicuous void left by the progrçssive dmntlg of the trditionl, lte-medievl scrmentl culture. The flourhg of new culture of persu sion contributed turn to the erly emergence Englnd of wht lter cme to be clled the public sphere. Chrles Tylor remrks t the outset of Sources of the Self tht morl sources of emergg modern identity re fr richer thn the impoverhed lnguge of modernity s most zelous defenders. lz H pot very pl: criticl element ofth impoverhment oflnguge neglect ofthe ontologicl, theologicl, nd metphysicl ctegories which, Tylor s view, constitute the groundwork or foun dtion for these sources. Therefore, followg Tylor s led our ttempt to recover some of these rich sources of erlymodernity the context of Tudor struggles over religious identities, we propose first to trce some steps whereby dputtion concerng cert key hermeneuticl nd theologicl ssumptions gve re to significnt ltertion the sense of these identities, nd secondly to explore how trnsformed religious identities contributed turn to genertg rudimentry, but nonetheless recognizble erly-modern stnce of public sphere ofdcourse. must be reclled tht th Tudor period, religious dcourse ws the primry, most universl dcourse through which [the publici terpreted its own extence. 3 It 4 Our im, then, to ttempt to hold together with sgle view questions relted to the reconstruction oferly-modern religious identity, the relted conspicuous expnsion of culture of persusion, nd the resultg emergence from th of recognizbly public ren ofdcourse. In order to further th tent, the concrete htoricl focus ofour explortion ofthese tersectg themes will be the open-ir
6 WJ. TOKRANCE KIIUY The Public Sermon pulpit the preccts of St Pul s Cthedrl known hope will become cler s our quiry proceeds. For the present, my it which I s Pul s Cross for resons suffice to observe tht one of Chncellor Thoms Cromwell s first cts followg Henry s excommuniction ws to give the order tht none should be permitted to prech t Pul s Cross without declrg the uthority of the Bhop of Rome (s he ws henceforth to be nmed) ws no greter Englnd thn tht of ny other 5 foreign bhop. Pul s Cross: the public pulpit Without ny doubt the open-ir pulpit the preccts of St. Pul s Cthedrl known s Pul s Cross cn be reckoned mong the most fluentil of ll public venues erly-modern Englnd. In world where sermons generlly counted mong the conventionl mens of dult eduction, s vitl struments of populr morl nd socil guidnce, not to mention politicl control, Pul s Cross stnds out s London s pulpit ofpulpits; deed it lys clim to beg the public pulpit of the entire relm, nd ws rgubly more of stge thn prechg sttion. It ws n ren of vitl consequence where the conscience of church nd ntion found public utternce, prticulrly moments ofcr. 6 Very lrge crowds, sometimes numberg thousnds, gthered here to lten to the weekly two-hour sermons. On one occsion fter deliverg sermon t Pul s Cross not long fter the cces sion of Elizbeth, John Jewel wrote letter to h mentor Peter Mrtyr Vermigli Zurich tht s mny s 6,ooo people styed fterwrds to sg metricl pslms. 7 Gog bck to the thirteenth century St. Pul s churchyrd hd been public spce, bustlg privileged venue for the nnouncement of royl proclmtions nd ppl bulls to citizens of the cpitl. At Pul s Cross spokesmen uthorized by both Crown nd Church expounded government policy nd denounced heresy nd rebellion. Yet, unlike the royl Abbey of Westmster, St Pul s ws lwys perceived s belongg more to subjects thn to prces, nd th peculir sttus ws to cquire cresed significnce overtime. From the erliest records it cler tht the cthedrl churchyrd ws one of the fvoured settgs for populr protest, plce where public grievnces could be ired. For centuries th ws the meet g plce of London s folk-moot; royl gurntee of the liberties of the City ws proclimed here the reign of Henry III; Pul s Cross ws lso rllyg pot for dherents of Simon de Montfort s rebellion. ws the cknowledged epicentre of of religious identity were concerned. 8 In the sixteenth century th plce series of revolutionry events where mtters In h mgteril htory of the Pul s Cross sermons, Millr McLure ob served tht The Pul s Cross pulpit ws nothg less thn the populr voice of the Church ofenglnd durg the most turbulent nd cretive period ofher htory, 9 lthough wht ment by populr voice here mbivlent given the degree of government control, At times, especilly durg sessions of Prliment, the uditory microcosm of the whole relm, ll Englnd little room, must hve seemed nd deed n erly-seventeenth-century ptg shows us ech member of the udience h plce, properly ccoutred, groundlgs nd notbles, pit nd glleries, nd the midst, the pulpit s stge. zo Pul s Cross frequently served s the public fce of government when Thoms Cromwell nd Thoms Crnmer orchestrted propgnd for the Henric reformtion the the ftermth of Clement sug h bull of excommuniction. Prechg cmpigns t Pul s Cross bolstered Mtthew Prker s Advertements ofreligious uniformity the mid-i6os VIZ S 15305 s well s the ttempts byjohn Whitgift nd Richrd Bncroft to stem the rg tide of Dciplr Puritnm durg the Admonition controversy nd lter. It ws populrly climed tht ll the Englh Reformtion ws ccomplhed from the Cross, very much under the wtchful eye ofsenior bhops nd the tight control of the Privy Council.h1 These conditions, ofcourse, by no mens meet the requirements nd the of public sphere by strictly Hberms mesure. Yet, between end ofthe sixteenth century, th pulpit remed contuously t the centre ofevents which trnsformed Englnd s religious identities, nd through th trnsformtion contributed substntilly to the emergence of public ren ofdcourse nimted bove ll by culture of persusion. Of prime significnce the fct tht the trnsition from lte-medievl to n erly-modern religious identity ws chieved to persusion rguments, textul terprettion, exhorttion, resoned opion, nd morl dvice. At the end ofthe reign ofelizbeth, religious identity could no longer 1534 very lrge extent through be ssumed s simply given with the ccepted order of the world. Structures which hd previously connected hierrchiclly ordered cosmos to prllel, terconnected religious understndg lte-medievl scrmentl culture hd given wy, even mong dherents of Rome, to culture of persusion. One hs only to peruse McLure s Regter ofsermons preched t Pul s Cross, 1534-z642 to obt n impression of th epic trnsformtion.z3 At one time or nother, ll of the significnt plyers mong the ecclesticl nd university estblhments put n ppernce on stge John Fher, Cuthbert Tunstll, nd Stephen Grder, Thoms Crnmer, Hugh Ltimer, nd Nichols Ridley, John Jewel,John Whitgift, Richrd Hooker, nd Richrd Bncroft re just few of the proment prechers
The Pubhc Sermon 9 8 W.J. TORRANCE KIRBY who mde their exits nd their entrnces the tortuous course of the Englh Reformtions. Yet, the full significnce oftheir ppernces not to be terpreted solely with regrd to their officil stndg trditionl stitutions Church, Prliment, or University. Their contribution to nscent public sphere to be terpreted rther through the ren of their dcourse their reltion to the udi ences, nd their relce upon the devices of rhetoric nd rgument to shpe religious identity. The dynmic ofstge nd udience t Pul s Cross promoted n emergg sense of religious identity shped by the struments of exeges, rgumenttion, nd exhorttion. It through such dynmic tht the sense of n emergg public open to persusion begs to tke hold nd to redefe religious identity. Pul s Cross rgubly the sgle most importnt vehicle ofpublic persusion to be employed by government from the itition ofthe Henric Reformtion the erly 153oS down to the fl yers ofthe reign ofelizbeth. On th clim rests further ssertion tht the formtion ofenglnd s succession ofreligious identities th period comes to depend to high degree on the words uttered here. The emer gence t Pul s Cross ofn cresgly sophticted culture ofpersusion movg concurrently with public policy ws trsic not only to the formtion of new Protestnt religious identity, but lso to the rticultion of Counter-Reformtion Ctholic identity. In prt th ws owg to the timte proximity ofpulpit nd press. The nmes of dozens ofprters nd booksellers re identified on colophons the period 1530 to ióoo s dwellg Pules churchyrde, nd by rough estimte they re the mjority. Virtully ll booksellers not Pul s churchyrd re locted nerby with the sound of Bow bells. It certly no mere hppenstnce tht lrge prt of the book trde sixteenth-century London ws conducted with hilg dtnce of Pul s Cross. pulpit contued on its course prt. Yet it would be dvble not to exggerte the role ofprt culture with respect to the pulpit. Andrew Pettegree hs cutioned tht ny ccount of how Protestntm could become mss movement n ge before mss litercy must be creful to relocte the role of the book, s prt of broder rnge of modes ofpersusion, nd especilly with respect to public prech g. Scripturlly-bsed prechg restored to its centrl plce s the bedrock round which the churches hrnessed other communiction medi. th more ccurtely pplied thn the cse of Pul s Cross. Yet curiously the sermon rems much neglected genre the study of th period. To beg our brief survey of the role plyed by Pul s Cross the formtion of Tudor religious identities, tkg the forml brek with Rome s our pot of deprture, on Jnury 1534 the trditionl pryer for the pope ws omitted t i 14 The culture ofpersusion which sued from the 15 Nowhere 6 the Pul s Cross sermon followg memorndum sued by Thoms Cromwell to John Stokesley, Bhop of London, on the previous dy. orchestrted cmpign ofpropgnd the months followg support oflegl tion movg through Prliment to confirm Henry s hedship ofthe Church, every Sundy preched t Pul s Cross bhop who declred the Pope not to be hed of the church. kg hth the highe power under God, nd oughte to be the supreme hed over ll spiritull preltes. 9 Yet somehow August 1536, royl chpl mnged to slip underneth Cromwell s rdr to prech sermon questiong the Kg s supremcy. In the opion ofwillim Mrshll, ctg s the Lord Chncellor s observer, the Bhop of London hd permitted rbblement of seditious prechers t Pul s Cross. the supremcy, s touchg the condemntion of the rebels [of the Pilgrimge of Grce). 3 On z My 1538 FrirJohn Forest refused to do public pennce for deny g the Royl Supremcy before the ssembled compny surroundg the pulpit, perhps signllg some ltertion public mood. 1540 witnessed sermons both for nd gst Luthern doctre delivered respectively by Thoms Crnmer nd Stephen Grder. observtions concerng Englnd s multiple Reformtions. 1540 mrks the trnsi tion from the evngelicl phse of the 15305 to the more conservtive fl yers of Henry s reign. The key pot not so much bout process of confessionlizg nd its undenibly murky development so fr s Englnd concerned, s it bout the brod commitment by proponents of widely diverse confessionl positions to the prctices of common culture of persusion. 8 July 1543 sw the recnttions t Pul s Cross of vnt-grde evngelicls Thoms Becon, Robert Wdom, nd Robert Sgleton. On ojuly i44 the plywright John Heywood ws required to recnt h dherence to the supremcy ofthe Bhop of Rome. The cknowledgment of the royl supremcy nd the ffirmtion of Luthern doctre contued to be t odds for the remder ofhenry s reign. it terestg to note pssg tht the well-estblhed medievl prctice of public pennce nd recnttions t Pul s Cross contued throughout the Reformtion period nd well to the seventeenth century until the destruction of the pulpit 1643. McLure s Regter notes frequent nd regulr occurrence of penitents berg fggots nd recntg dmnble errors nd heresies throughout the reigns of Henry viii nd ll three of h progeny.3 In th penitentil drm con ducted t Pul s Cross there n terestg juxtposition of the concerns of the dividul soul with those of higher, politicl signiflcncc, n tersection of wht 7 As prt of Cromwell s 8 Mny sermons of the mid-153os dwell on the theme of how every 3 Edwrd Lee, Archbhop ofyork, on the other hnd, did right well touchg 35 3 33 Th significnt from the stndpot of Chrtopher High s 34 6
10 W. J. TORRANCE KIRBY The Public Sermon ii Clv referred to s the wrd forum of the conscience (forum conscientie) nd the outwrd forum of the public ren (forum externum et politzcum).37 It would seem tht the more shrply the self deleted, the more clerly recognizbly public forum comes to ply. Both self nd public sphere emerge with shrper defition s the scrmentl hierrchy with its tricte, grduted dposition of relity recedes from its plce s the domnt hermeneutic. On z6 September 1546 numerous hereticl books nd pmphlets were burned t the Cross durg the sermon, cludg Tyndle s Englh New Testment nd Coverdle s Bible. Jnury 1547, less thn two weeks before the deth ofhenry vui,john Feckenhm, lmoner to Edmund Bonner, deplored the dvnce of Luthern heresy mong the younger genertion. Feckenhm s pprehension ws to prove prescient. Shortly fter the ccession of Edwrd vi, Willim Brlow denounced the venertion of imges nd smshed two icons while stndg the pulpit t Pul s Cross, himself n stnce of the new power of persusion sce he hd erlier written trct ttckg the buses of the Luthern heretics. Sermon on the Ploughers, certly one of the most fmous sermons preched the course ofthe Englh Reformtion, ct of penitence, lthough London cnnot bide to be rebuked, such the nture of mn nd th behlf I must spek here to my country, Englnd, s Pul did h first eptle to the Corths. 4z In sermon preched June followg, Stephen Grder boldly resserted the conservtive Henric stnce; he upheld the kg s supremcy, nd t the sme time ffirmed the trditionl Ctholic tech g concerng the Mss, trnsubstntition, nd the doctre of Rel Presence. Shortly therefter, Richrd Cox, Den of Chrt Church nd Vice-Chncellor of Oxford University, entered the pulpit to offer h riposte. Wriothesley notes tht All thoys prechers tht prechyd t Powlles crosse t tht time spke moche gyne the bysshope ofwynchester. Perusl of extnt Pul s Cross Sermons shows hevily dproportionte emphs throughout the period 1534 to 1570 on Grder s two themes bove ll others: nmely, the royl clim to ecclesticl jurdiction nd the sttus of the scrment. With respect to the Supremcy, there re dcernible phses of rhetoric employed. Sermons of the first Reformtion (1s33 s39) plce strong emphs on justifyg the prciple of the Kg s supremcy, while those of the second Reformtion (,547 3) stress the obedience of subjects to n stitution now clerly recognized. When Protestnt settlement becme cresgly secure the third phse of Reformtion under Elizbeth, sermons on the supremcy strike 39 5 On 6 4 On 8Jnury 1548 Hugh Ltimer preched h celebrted 44 41 Ltimer clls upon ll London to common 43 more celebrtory note, especilly the Accession Dy.sermons Ofl 17 November. These were occsions of solemn nnul rehersl of communl memory with the ffirmtion ofroyl governnce ofthe Church s their focus. dtct rhetoricl phses from exposition of the prciple (under Henry), through exhorttion to obedience (under Edwrd), nd flly to commemortion (under Elizbeth), there grdul evolution of religious identity. The fluence of the externl forum ofpublic persusion brought to ber turn upon the fculties of the ner forum ofthe conscience understndg, will, nd memory with ech receivg the pproprite emphs s circumstnces required. To contue, for the moment, with our rehersl of highlights of the ction t Pul s Cross, 1549 witnessed severl Anbptts berg fggot token oftheir recnttion of hereticl errors. In July Thoms Crnmer s chpl,johnjoseph, rehersed tht to sy, summrized sermon conernynge the tyme ofrebel lion composed by the Florente reformer nd then Regius Professor of Divity t Oxford, Peter Mrtyr Vermigli, lthough ctully preched by Crnmer t St. Pul s the previous week, just few dys fter the imposition ofmrtil lw, In the ftermth ofthe rebellionofi preched the Shrouds chpel beneth the Cthedrl choir where Pul s Cross sermons were delivered durg clement wether gst dobedience nd socil justice.4 of religious reform on September 1549, Edmund Bonne: chose to ssert Chrt s rel presence the scrment defce ofcrnmer nd the Edwrd estblh ment, nd soon found himself improned for h ps. Such epodes underle the degree to which the fully fledged public sphere described by Hberms hs yet to pper, nd yet the very fct tht religious conservtive like Bonner given the opportunity of the pulpit itself remrkble occurrence. On 9 July 1553 the shoe ws clerly on the other foot. Nichols Ridley preched the sme pulpit support of the succession of LdyJne Grey, on the sme dy tht Privy Counsellors nd the gurd swore their obedience to her, nd ws sub sequently burned t the stke Oxford for h dcretion. Thoms Wtson, Bhop of Lcoln, gurded by zoo men-t-rms with bills nd hlberds, counselled the congregtion t Pul s Cross to keep the ould fithe, nd edifye the ould Temple ge. up to the pulpit on 30 September 1553 to condemn the prechers of Edwrd s reign nd to pre Mry s consort, Kg Phillip ii of Sp. Henry Mchyn reports tht on th occsion there ws s grett udyensse s ever I sw my lyff. Phillip himself ttended t Pul s Cross lter tht sme yer to her Grder proclim 6 549 45 Movg thus through, Thoms Lever, Mster of St.John s, Cmbridge, 8 The rebellion must be terpreted. Ordered to prech support 49 50 At Mry s ccession, 5 Stephen Grder, now Lord Chncellor, stepped 5
The Public Sermon 13 12 W.J.TORRANCEKIRBY Englnd s redmsion to Ctholic Chrtendom. Exploittion of ll the tools of public persusion hd by now become defitive of both evngelicl reformers nd Ctholic conservtives like. Just two dys fter the ccession ofelizbeth on 17 November her chpl Willim Bill preched t Pul s Cross by royl order nd, ccordg to Mchyn, md[e] godly sermon, mde pl the Sundy followg when John Chrtopherson, Mr Bhop of Chichester, vehemently denounced Bill nd encourged h udience to believe not th new doctre; it not the gospel, but new vention of new men nd of heretics. After th itil pulpit skirmh there followed severl months silence while the Council sought to consolidte power. No more sermons were herd t Pul s Cross until the scholrly Mtthew Prker ws ppoted to prech the follow g Februry, t the very time he ws despertely seekg to void elevtion to the See of Cnterbury. Edmund Grdl proclimed restortion ofthe Book of Common Pryerfrom Pul s Cross My 1559. On the z6 November followg, before s grett udyense s (hs ever) bene t Powiles Crosse, JohnJewel, bhop-elect ofslbury preched h fmed Chllenge Sermon, shrply focused nd susted ttck on the doctre, rites, nd ceremonies of the Romn church, nd quite possibly the most brodly fluentil of ll sermons delivered t Pul s Cross throughout the Tudor er.só Jewel s sermon mrks significnt wtershed the htory of Pul s Cross light of the subsequent cultivtion of religious identities Englnd (use ofthe plurl slient th connection), nd, perhps most importnt of ll, the mturtion ofthe Tudor culture ofpersusion, nd hence the grdul emergence of recognizble erly-modern stnce of the public sphere. In contentjewel s Chllenge Sermon not mrkedly different from wht hd been common fre t Pul s Cross sce the dys ofthoms Cromwell s propgnd cmpign of the 1530s. There re, however, cert subtle differences of rhetoric nd, even more importntly, of the sermon s public reception which set prt th prticulr pulpit event s one of remrkble significnce for the formtion not only of Englh religious identity t the outset of the reign of Elizbeth, but lso of erly-modern identity lrger, more generl sense. Jewel s rhetoricl gmbit ws to seek reversl ofthe burden ofproof; he chllenged the dherents of Rome to demonstrte the truth of their position on vrious spects ofscrmentl doctre nd prctice: privte msses, communion under one kd, pryers strnge tongue, trnsubstntition, nd the venertion of imges s well s the question of the jurdiction of the Bhop of Rome. Jewel urged the utonomy of regionl churches nd the supremcy of Chrt Prces. (Here we fd once g the 53 5 Tht the new regime ws off to very shky strt ws two constntly recurrg themes of Pul s Cross sermons jurdction nd the scrments.) He repeted the chllenge Court sermon on g t Pul s Cross on 31 Mrch Gryjenks hs poted out tht most of the fer dtctions of euchrtic doctre were undoubtedly too rcne for the vst mjority ofthe fithful Englnd to hve contemplted, let lone considered t length. 5 commotion tht contued on the boil for severl yers. Over the course of the next decde, Pul s Cross reverberted repetedly with repercussions ofjewel s Chllenge nd the prtghouses Pul s church-yrd were kept busy s never before. Henry Cole, Mr Den of St. Pul s, ws the first to step up to the plte n exchnge ofletters lter publhed pmphlet together with the now fmous sermon. In the mentime,jewel hd honed h rgument further nd publhed it nonymously Lt under the title Apologi ecclesi nglicn3. It ws soon trnslted by the formidble Anne Cooke, Ldy Bcon, second wife of Sir Nichols; the ccurcy nd styltic dtction ofher work received grtifyg nd immedite recognition when Archbhop Mtthew Prker rrnged publiction of h mnuscript copy, mkg her words the voice ofthe estblhed church. Nowell, Henry Cole s replcement s Den of St. Pul s, preched t Pul s Cross response to Thoms Hrdg s cogent Ansvvere to Mter luelles chlenge! Attcks on Jewel prt were swiftly multiplyg nd Den Nowell ws the pulpit once g November to reply to yet nother, viz. Thoms Dormn s Defence of Ctholyke Beleefdedicted to h ptron Hrdg. Dormn becme volved n exchnge of five books, with Dormn s lst slvo returng to direct ttck on Jewel s origl sermon. g with h Confuttwn of the Apology, ndjewel preched g t Pul s Cross reply to Hrdg on 2.7 My 1565.65 At th pot Thoms Stpleton lept to the fry with the publiction ofh Fortress of the Fith. thoroughly tertwed the furious pce of wht becme known s the Gret Controversy. for refusg to repudite ppl primcy, Stpleton eventuliy joed Willim Allen foundg the Englh College t Doui. From there Stpleton lunched yet nother slvo ttckgjewel s reply to Hrdg, while the mentime Jewel hd begun to pull together h mssive Defence of the Apology. As the fur contued to fly nd s mesure, moreover, of how public the confronttion hd become, even foreigners were drwn to the struggle to defe Englnd s religious identity. In n eptle to Queen Elizbeth trnslted by Richrd Shcklock, nother Louvt, Portuguese bhop Hieronymous Osorius cut to r Mrch nd once 8 Nonetheless, th prticulr Pul s Cross sermon cused n unprecedented 6 59 6 On 30 April 1564, Alexnder 2 6 As consequence Nowell nd 6 Hrdg nswered Jewel 66 Pulpit nd press hd become 67 After beg deprived ofh prebend t the Cthedrl ofchichester 68
14 W. J. TORRANCE ICIRBY The Public Sermon 1 the chse when he wrned tht Protestnts go bout to pul sondre the fences nd closures of ll lwe nd religion. By brekg long estblhed theologicl ssumptions nd religious custom, ll fere put to flight, nd licentiouse livg dothe rigne withoute comptrollment. By virtue of,jewel s ssertion ofjustifiction by fith lone nd by h repudition ofthe uthority ofthe Ppcy, there shll ryse mnyfolde ye fite religions one contrry to the other... for every mn wyll vent churche, ccordg to h own fntsye. Osorius ws nswered turn by the dtguhed Ltt Wlter Hddon, trnsl tor of the LiberPrecum Publicrum (i6o) nd key contributor to the Reformtio legum eccieststicrum (1571)7 Such were the escltg stkes wht hd become one of the epic confronttions of the Englh Reformtion. And ofcourse the high profile of Pul s Cross ws not only decive precipittg the exchnge, it contued to function promently the unfoldg struggle to defe religious identity. All told, the contributions ofjewel nd h llies combed with the counter-offensive led by the Englh recusnt exiles centred t Doui nd the University of Louv produced more thn 40 tretes nd pmphlets with seven yers of the origl Chllenge Sermon t Pul s CrossY Throughout th protrcted torrent ofwords preched nd publhed, tcitly cknowledged by ll prticipnts the Gret Controversy were cert common rules ofenggement. While the polemicl tone from ll qurters ws lmost vribly hrsh nd brsive, there ws, nonetheless, concerted ttempt by ll to employ rhetoric order to persude, to resolve the conscience through closely resoned biblicl exeges, cogent rgumenttion, nd especilly through judicious terprettion ofecclesticl trdition. A prticulrly fierce bttle ws wged over conflictg clims to ptrtic uthority which hd the long-term effect oflunchg modern Ptrtic scholrship. In pulpit nd press who owns the Fthers? becme wtchword mong the dputnts, nd the midst of the struggle the birth-pngs of modern criticl scholrship cn be dcerned. Seventy-four editions of the writgs of the Erly Church Fthers were publhed between 1536 nd ióoo, hlf of which compre tellgly the works ofauguste. As the debte unfolded, Auguste proved pivotl uthority workg out the underlyg morl-ontologicl differences between the old scrmentl horizon nd the new horizon of persusion. 69 As though it were tenn mtch, 7z Religious identity, the culture of persusion, nd the public sphere In less thn 30 yers between the lunchg of Thoms Cromwell s propgnd cmpign i34 nd the publiction ofjewel s Apologi 1562, the economy of religious dcourse Englnd hd undergone truly remrkble trnsformtion. On substntive level, trditionl common ssumptions upheld for centuries con cerng the nture of religious identity hd been clled to question. At the sme time, on n strumentl level, the rhetoricl mens employed the unfoldg of th rdicl questiong ofreligious identity both evngelicl chllenge nd trd itionlt response whether through pulpit or press were eluctbly bound up with the substntive content ofthe chnges. Put nother wy, how the prciples of religious identity were communicted becme seprble from wht ws ctully beg communicted. It importnt to recognize tht t fundmentl level these events the medium the messge, to borrow McLuhn s well-worn expression. 73 The conflict between Jewel nd h terlocutors ppers to hve hd the effect of glvnizg the recurrent sues ired the pulpit t Pul s Cross over the previ ous 25 yers. The m thrust ofthe Chllenge Sermon ws to highlight opposition between wht we hve identified (followg Chrles T ior s formultion) s two competg morl ontologies. 4 In h htory ofthe emergence ofrnodern identity Tylor pots out tht the morl ontology behd ny given set of views more likely thn not to rem lrgely implicit,7 The terprettion proposed here tht the competg morl ontologies underpng their respective religious identities re brought fully to shrper relief the course of the controversy precipitted byjewel s chllenge t Pul s Cross, It precely the clrity ofjewel s formultion of the kernel of th question of identity tht sprks the gret public debte of the i6os. Issues previously lrgely implicit hd been mde explicit. While considerble vriety of questions occupied the prechers t Pul s Cross over the precedg decdes, we hve lredy observed recurrg emphs on two questions prticulr first, the nture of scrmentl presence nd the scrmentl itself terms of the doctre of the Mss, nd secondly, the reltion between religious nd politicl power light of the royl ssumption of supreme ecclesticl jurdiction. The success ofjewel s Chllenge sermon to weve these two primry thrusts ofcontroversy to sgle, focused debte.jewel proposes n explicit lk between religious prctices nd scrmentl phenomen, on the one hnd, with the question ofthe more fundmentl xioms ofn essentil, underlyg frmework Tylor s morl ontology. The cerbity nd susted tensity of the ensug exchnge between Jewel nd h numerous terlocutors of the Louv school, s well s others, re evidence of significnt escltion the stkes of th public dputtion. The Gret Controversy of the i56os brgs the question of religious identities to focus on fundmentl xioms, nd both prties to the dpute plly recognize tht these xioms re defitive ofthe universl morl-ontologicl
i6 W.J. TORRANCE KiRBY The PuNk Sermon frmework with which the more specific nd prticulr concerns of religious identity re ultimtely determed. Chrles Tylor sttes concerng identity generl tht it defed by or horizon with I to cse cse wht or vluble, or wht to be done, or wht I endorse or oppose. In other words, it cpble... To spce, spce or bd, wht not, wht hs meng nd importnce for you the commitments nd identifictions which provide the frme which cn try ought which lm morl worth dog nd wht trivil nd secondry. determe from of tkg stnd to good, which questions re bout wht the horizon with know who you re to be good oriented nd wht The doctre of the Mss, its m corollries nd supports trnsubstntition, venertion of imges, privte msses, communion under one kd, pryers strnge tongue become, on Jewel s ccount, the selected criteri for ddressg, weighg, nd flly judgg forensic imge here mkes its cse, the defence complete ontologicl frmework. The voction of tril. A chrge levelled, the prosecution crucil. Th herd, nd fter summg up, judgment delivered. While the conduct of the tril no doubt presupposes the presence of the powerful gents of Crown, Prliment, Church, University, nd City the pgent of sermon t Pul s Cross ll of them represented one wy or nother the judges very vitl sense re the ssembled udience. The most importnt tril to be conducted n open court ofpublic judgment. All ofthe devices ofpersusion re imed ultimtely t securg conscientious embrce of the rgument. The judgment of the lerned without doubt of the highest consequence, but ultimte success will depend lso on populr embrce of tht judgment. Over gst the Mss, Jewel sets justifiction by fith nd the competg ontologicl frmework it represents. Modern plurlt ssumptions re pt to produce genue dcomfort t the confidence ssumed such formultions. As Tylor pots out, we now tend to view ny nd ll such frmeworks s trsiclly optionl modernity. nd tht th just tht ges... when 77 Yet Tylor necessry consequence of the dvncg denchntment surely correct h observtion tht erlier the mjor defition of our extentil predicment ws one which we fered bove ll condemntion, where n unchllengeble frmework mde imperious demnds on us, it understndble tht people sw their frmeworks 8 s enjoyg the sme ontologicl solidity s the very structure of the universe. Thus, for exmple, defence of the Romn ecclesticl hierrchy culmtg the ppcy, Nichols Snders vokes the Chrt Neopltonic morl ontology of the cosmic kx divitt, the lw of the so-clled gret ch. Snders ppels to just such n ssumption of ontologicl solidrity when he clims tht Where mny Countries, tong[ue]s, Rulers nd techers it were mny Cpites one gret rmie of men, (s re body, re there one nd s the church of Chrt) there, iforder be not exctly kept, gret nd horrible confusion must needes follow. The ll hve Judge, fli known whose ll my men both here nd obey.9 conservtion of order, controversies to sentence Without flity of judgment ll order dsiptes. The ppcy s the known judge who brgs down fll sentence thus the most crucil lk to the ontologicl order s scrmentlly terpreted. Yet, even for Snders the uthority of th fl sentence no longer simply given or presupposed with the universl hierrch icl order of relity. Argument, demonstrtion, persusion must be voked order to convce the public tht such judge necessry, tht the Pope himself ctulity tht uthor of the fll sentence. In effect Snders ppels to the struments of the culture of persusion order to justify nd defend the sc rmentl culture. From competg frmework or morl-ontologicl ssumption, Jewel will rgue tht unity nd order subst with the horizon implied by the sovereignty of the godly Prce. The Royl Supremcy the epiphenomenon of different ontologicl ssumption, one which chllenges the morl ssumptions of the gret-ch ontology s terpreted by Snders, Hrdg, nd the rest of the Louvts. Thus dtct religious identity with its mnifold phenomenl consequences derives from different morl xiom nd from the reved horizon defed by tht lterntive xiom. It the role of the pulpit th tril nd cresgly lso of the press nd prt culture, lthough derivtively, followg the pulpit s led to employ every possible mens ofpersusion to brg n ever more dcerng public to con scientious ffirmtion ofthe frmework, the morl ontology, nd the fundmentl xioms of terprettion which serve to shpe religious identity. Th substitution of the persusive for the scrmentl of denchntment which gives re to modernity. crucil step the Weber process The Privy Council s first response to Clement vii s bull of excommuniction portended crucil role for Pul s Cross public dputtion over religious identi ties the decdes immeditely followg. Committed to r policy of estblhg royl hedship of the Church, Thoms Cromwell ordered tht none should be permitted to prech t Pul s Cross without declrg the uthority of the Bhop of Rome (s he ws henceforth to be nmed) s no greter thn tht of ny other 8 Th ws revolution deed. The long, contuous thred of the lte- foreign bhop.
18 W. j. TORRANCE KIRBY The Public Sermon 9 medievl socil imgry the thred which lked the ordered life oftemporl religious community through the ecdesticl hierrchy with the hierrchicl order of the entire cosmos, nd beyond the relm of the vible, physicl relity with the hierrchy of the ngels, the communion of the sts, nd ultimtely to the dive life of the blessed Trity hd been cut. By defyg the bull of excommunic tion, the core ssumption underlyg the morl ontology of hierrchy hd been chllenged, nd with it the hitherto ccepted horizon of religious identity. the nciently presupposed hierrchicl frmework ofthe lex divitt, understood to lk the church nd humn society through symbol nd scrment to n immnent, creted order ofbeg the cosmos, nd beyond the vible relm to the vible community of the ngels nd the sts, ws effectively bndoned s socil imgry. 8The severg of the gret ch (vividly symbolized by Clement VII S excommuniction of Henry) might be described s cretg kd of morl-ontologicl vcuum which given nture s cknowledged bhorrence of such condition ws very swiftly occupied by dtctly different primry xiom, presupposition, frmework, morl ontology. In the process of replcement ofthe hierrchicl ssumptions ofthe old frme work, there emerges remrkble ssurnce ofthe possibilities herent Persusion. Wheres the primry pot ofcontct with relity the scrmentl culture ws through sign nd symbol, the contct the culture ofpersusion ws prciplly through n ppel to the humn fculties of memory, understndg, nd will, tht to the identity of the rtionl humn self (imgo dci) s terpreted by the August nthropology of the evngelicl reformers. Nowhere th emergent culture of persusion more vitlly evident the 1530S thn t Pul s Cross. If the uthority of the ppcy ws to be extguhed nd with it the old ssumption concerng Englnd s religious identity s derived from nd defed by grdul, scrmentlly medited hierrchy culmtg the jurdiction of the ppcy then th required rdiclly reved ccount of the horizon, frmework, xiom of religious identity to stnd its plce. With th new morl ontology there emerges new religious identity, nd through it new politicl identity s well which would brg with it dtctively modern ffirmtion of ordry life. The swiftness with which the dsolution of the monsteries ws chieved mesure of the dynmm ofth new morl frmework nd testimony to the rdicl deciveness ofthe shift chieved by the first Reformtion ofhenry VIII. From the 15305 onwrd, centrl to the defition of the new frmework th new morl ontology ws deep-seted commitment to culture of persusion. 8 82 which ws 8 From 1,4., prechers t Pul s Cross were required to promote rdiclly new religious ssumption, one which cut shrply cross the gr ofthe old. Ihe nture of th new religious identity, moreover, ws mde evident both the content nd the form or mnner ofits presenttion. As we hve seen, the content of the new identity ws closely identifiedwith the ssertion ofthe bsolute supremcy of the Crown religious mtters, nd with it the corollry denil of the jurdiction of the bhop of Rome the two were ontologiclly irreconcilble. The forml presenttion of th new identity i.e. through persusion of equl importnce, nd rgubly, over the longer term, of even greter significnce thn the ctul content of pulpit struction. Throughout the revolution of the ios the public pulpit t Pul s Cross not only becme one ofthe prcipl mens ofreconstructg the primry ssumptions of Englnd s religious identities through promulgtion of reved doctre; the hevy emphs upon the forml ctivity of prechg itself cme to exemplify the substnce oftht new frmework. A hermeneutics ofpublic judgment comes to sup plnt the hermeneutics ofsign nd symbol, new culture ofpersusion dplcg the old scrmentl culture. Accordg to the logic ofthe dplced frmework of medited cosmic hierrchy (whose rejection we climed t the outset drmtic lly symbolized by Henry s rejection of ppl jurdiction), religious identity hd been understood hitherto s somethg given, s timtely identified with the ontologicl structures nd symbolic order of the universe itself. Such n identific tion of religious nd cosmic relity the essentil (nd essentilt) clim of wht we hve been cllg scrmentl culture. At the outset ofthe fourteenth century Bonifce VIII very succctly summrized the logic of th culture of scrmentl medition the bull Unm Snctm: it the lw of divity (lex divitt) tht the lowest thgs re led to the highest by termediries... [nd] ccordg to the order of the universe, ll thgs re not led bck eqully nd immeditely, but the lowest by the termediry, nd the ferior by the superior nd... therefore if the terrestril power err, it will be judged by the spiritul power. The new frmework ofthe culture ofpersusion, on the other hnd, built upon the preme tht the primry substnce of religious identity not simply given the hierrchicl structure ofthe cosmos, but rther to be found the constitution ofthe humn selfs memory, understndg, nd will. In th respect, erly-modern religious identity, nd deed the modern sense of the self, rgubly derived from formultion of August nthropology. On th view, religious identity derives properly from ner recognition, conscientious ft mtion, nd the ternl witness offith nd persusion. The simple fct tht 1534 public uthority deems it 85
O W.JTORRANCEKIk1IY The Public Sermon necessry to employ the pulpit to persude subjects of their primry religious oblig tion nd of the legitimcy of the reconstituted stitutions ofreligious uthority n ssumption implicit Thoms Cromwell s explicit provions for prechg t Pul s Cross t th time itself s importnt s ny specific doctre beg promulgted from the public pulpit. In the context of the public sermons preched t Pul s Cross, therefore, there remrkbly close correspondence between the rhetoricl form nd the theologicl content the revolutionry re-defition ofreligious identity by the Protestnt reformers, At Pul s Cross, therefore, the culture of persusion mnifested through both form nd content. Throughout Englnd s rdicl religious nd constitutionl trnsformtion of the 153oS, Henry s chiefmter Thoms Cromwell simultneously mnged both the triccies ofthe legltive progrmme nd highly sophticted propgnd cmpign through pulpit nd press support of the constitutionl gend before Prliment. The substnce of the pmphlets of the erly 53oS mny respects epitomizes the legltion pssed by the Reformtion Prliment. The sme true for the sermons preched t Pul s Cross. Wht, then, the significnce of Cromwell s resortg to pulpit nd press th concerted fshion to justify new defition of the church nd religious identity? Order no longer ssumed simply s ontologiclly given but must give n ccount of itself; there revolutionry brek with deep, long-held ssumptions concerng the nture ofthe church nd its reltion to politicl power, of the reltion between religion nd the primry socil structures, nd lso ofthe reltion between the conscience ofthe dividul subject nd duly constituted politicl uthority. The crucil element th new reltion especilly evident the perceived need for the encourgement of public cmpign of persusion. Such cmpign ssumes tht the morl force of religious identity rests not upon its trsic given-ness the order of religious life, but rther upon ctive recognition, ssent, nd embrce by its dherents. The importnce of subjective pproprition of the new frmework through persusion nd the new defition of the communl identity hve become trsic to the substence of tht frmework. Th the sense of the importnce ttched to new culture of persusion. Cromwell s propgnd cmpign pulpit nd press sets rdicl preced ent; it estblhes pttern for the promotion of religious identity subsequent phses of the Englh Reformtion or subsequent Englh Reformtions, if tht the preferred formul notbly the rpid nd comprehensive religious reforms promoted by the Council the brief reign of Edwrd vi, the ttempts under Mry to scle bck these reforms, nd their re-troduction nd eventul 56 8 consolidtion fter the ccession of Elizbeth. Throughout ll of these chnges, the pulpit t Pul s Cross constently t the hert of the ction. As we hve ttempted to show, the relentless effort to promote religious nd constitutionl reform through susted cmpign of public persusion represents the stedy undercurrent of the Pul s Cross sermons throughout th period The perceived need to persude tht, to spek to the conscience, to ppel to the perceptions, judgment, dcernment, prudence, dcrimtion, etc. of dcerng religious public wholly constent with the core theologicl clims ofthe reformers; such rhetoricl pproch positively required of them. In very rel sense the medium the messge. To ffirm the necessity of ddressg the judgment of the dcerng, rtionl dividul s the Tudor reformers do to mke defite clim regrdg the mens whereby tht dividul hs ccess to the primry relity. On th view, the morl horizon of the reformers defed by the medium ofpersusion s much s by the messge of evngelicl or politicl doctre. The emergence of the Tudor culture of persusion the 15305 nd its flourhg the Gret Controversy of the i56os re evidence of the collpse of the lterntive frmework of religious identity defed by semiotic hermeneutic, morl ontology defed by the concept ofhierrchywith its externl, scrmentl pprtus s the primry mens of medition between temporl nd spiritul extence. Indeed the contug stnd-off between the reformed Church of Englnd nd Ctholicm propelled n escltg ideologicl struggle with n ever-wideng gp between religious conscience nd stitutionl uthority. As Peter Lke nd Michel Questier hve concluded with respect to the lessons of the Edmund Cmpion ffir, the emergence of rudimentry public sphere Elizbethn Englnd ws essentilly n ideologicl event. At stke ws the le between politics nd religion nd the defition of wht could or should be freely debted public, ofwht loylty nd obedience to the mgtrte ment. sues constitute the crux ofwht debted bck nd forth, week fter week, yer fter yer the pulpit t Pul s Cross. The soteriologicl formule of the evngelicl vnt-grde offer n lterntive frmework of medition: slvtion by Chrt lone (nd not by the necessry medition of the church hierrchicl); by grce lone (nd not by ny nturl humn powers, fculties, or cpbilities); by fith lone (nd not by externl works or ny virtuous ctivity, e.g. pilgrimges nd pennces); s reveled scripture lone (tht, hermeneutics of scripture s contg techg sufficient to slvtion without the necessity of dditionl techg nd trditions ofthe htoricl church). The effect ofsuch hermeneutics to chllenge the ch ofhierrchicl medition nd to question t its foundtion the necessity of 88 8 These
22 W.J. TORRANCE KIRI3Y The Public Sermon 23 the church s elborte scrmentl pprtus the economy of slvtion. For the reformers, the unifiction of souls to the dive somethg to be ccomplhed through the comprtive immedicy of the Word spoken nd herd, tht through n ner persusion. Th rdiclly re-formed soteriologicl conception ofthe reltion between the dividul soul ofthe Chrt believer nd the dive crries with it corollry ofwht constitutes the primry socil imgry ecclesi, the community ofdividuls who shre th reltion. Owg to the concept of medition implied by the sols grce lone, fith lone, etc. the frmework ofreligious identity nd with it the orderg ofthe reltion between the ner nd outer, between privte nd public extence, trnsformed lmost beyond recognition reltively brief spn of time. In effect, the cresgly shrp demrction between the forum of the conscience nd the externl forum of stitutionl life, both religious nd civil, necessittes the ppernce of public sphere of dcussion s the mens of medition between the demnds of the twofor i.e. between conscience nd stitutionl power. Th trnsformtion decive the shift from the morl ontology of scrmentl culture to tht of the culture of persusion nd, s we hve rgued, th trnsformtion ofmorl ontology gives birth turn to buddg erly-modern public sphere. i. The. 3. Notes ppl breve declred both Henry s divorce of Kthere nd h mrrige with Anne Boleyn vlid, nd pronounced h excommuniction from the Church. On the sme dy Clement lso excommunicted Thoms Crnmer, Edwrd Lee (Arch bhop of Stephen Grder (Bhop of Wchester), nd John Longlnd did not come to force until Octo York), (Bhop of Lcoln). Although sued on ii July, ber. Mx Weber, Science it s Voction, From Mx Weber: Essys Sociology, trns. nd ed. H. H. Gerth nd C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, nd p. 139, liefs 1997). i. See Keith sixteenth nd Thoms, Religion seventeenth Peter Mrshll nd Alec Ryrie, ed., bridge: Cmbridge University Press, zooz); ormtion (London: Arnold, the Englh Reformtion, Journl ofbrith The oo 1o4o the decle of mgic: studies 1946), populr be century Englnd (New York: Oxford University Press, of Englh The Begngs P. Mrshll, The Dirmid McCulloch, 1997); Studies 30 (1991), 1 19; i5oo s8o Strippg of the Altrs: Trditionl Religion Englnd, London: Yle University Press, 1992.), pp. ii, Protestntm (Cm Impct ofthe Englh Ref pp. The Myth of Emon Duffy, (New Hven nd. s. 6.. Fher See Henry Chdwick, Royl ecclesticl supremcy, the The of Bhop John Reformtion: Creer 1989), p.187. C. A High, Protestnt Ntion of Protestnts, Ctholic Herld z p. 7. (98), On the question Emon Duffy, ed., Humnm, Reform nd Fher (Cmbridge: Cmbridge University Press, Ntion, not of the cuse of decle Brendn Brdshw nd populr lte-medievl Ctholic, High observes tht Protestnt it prechg cnnot be the nswer there ws not enough of Ethn Shgn, Clement Armstrong nd the godly commonwelth: rdicl religion erly Tudor Englnd, Begngs tht Englnd of the erly 153oS...... ofenglh p. 6i. Protestnt,n, bout. Shgn pots out smll evngelicl mority ly the hopes of the policies of mercuril kg who hd begun mkg drk threts gst the pope nd the clergy. Seep. 78. Lucy E. C. Woodg, Rethkg Ctholicm endon Press, woo), ch. cy ; Bernrd M.G. Rerdon, The Henric Vion nd ch. Religious thought Reformtion Englnd (Oxford: Clr the The Henric Leg Reformtion (London: Longmn, nd More both suffered execution rther thn tolerte the Royl Supremcy, while Grder nd Bonner both 1995), publhed ch. 10. gve 1535, Pul s (e.g. 2.9 1548), by the ryghte God B. of VVchestre, nowe lord Lte with the Stephn fsicj touchge Chu[n]cellour obedience of englnd, Dy, 1553). 8. 31 C. 14 (1539), Henry viii, the 739 42. Relm, iii, pp. 9. 10. petedly sermons t the stitution their full support. Grder fmous defence of the Supremcy Cross lhed the trete Dc ver obedienci: fther ptefce n ortion mde defended the stitution re sermon on nd repub June (London: John reuerend ofedmunde Boner.. true Sttutes of In th connection, Chrtopher High ccurtely identifies three dtct stges of Reformtion, or rther three Reformtions: the mid to lte vi, nd the openg yers ofthe reign ofelizbeth. C. High, ligion, society politics, nd under Andrew Pettegree, Reformtion nd University Press, zoos). ii. See Mry Polito, Governmentl rts z. 13. ton, VT: chel Questier, Ashgte, oo), the Tudors the culture p. 42.. The 1-ft: Anti-Chrt s Lewd 15305, the reign ofedwrd Englh (Oxford: Clrendon Press, ). reformtions: re ofpersusion (Cmbridge: Cmbridge erly Tudor Englnd (Aldershot, On scffold performnces, see uic; Burlg Peter Lke with Mi Protestnts, Ppts nd Plyers Reformtion Englnd (New Hven: Yle University Press, zooz), pp. Chrles Tylor, Sources of Cmbridge University Press, the Sef 1989; the repr. mkg of 2.006), p. 3. In nother context Peter Lke nd Michel Questier note tht Englnd the cretion of somethg like uct of the Puritn opposition to the estblhment or stte regime s own efforts to perpetute nd protect itself from conceived, See Modern Englnd: Htory 72. (zooo), 2.2.9 If. Post- modern identity (Cmbridge:... Elizbethn ws rudimentry public sphere product of the bi.it rther not prod poph thret vriously their jot rticle Puritns, Ppts, nd the Public Sphere Erly Edmund Cmpion Affir The p. 6z5. Context, The Journl of Modern