WHAT FACTORS LED THE APOLOGISTS TO EXPOUND AND DEFEND THEIR CHRISTIAN FAITH AND HOW IS THIS EVIDENT IN WHAT THEY WRITE? The second century Apologists sought to present and explain their Christian faith and to defend it against criticism and attack. The factors which led them to do so can be divided into two main categories which are evident in their writings. First was persecution against Christians which was arising on account of false accusations. Second was the intellectual context where the search for the true philosophy was central. This context led the Apologists to present the Christian faith as rational belief in the true philosophy. Persecution and False Accusations One of the key factors which led the Apologists to expound and defend their faith was the persecution Christians were suffering. At this point persecution was not systematic but was a very present danger for Christians. The Apologists sought to persuade the authorities that such persecution was unjust, unnecessary and unworthy of enlightened rulers. 1 This idea is often present at the start of the Apologists works as they set out their aim to the intended reader, often the Emperor himself. Athenagoras tells the emperor [a]lthough we do no wrong...you allow us to be harassed, plundered, and persecuted (1) and says [r]ather should we be tried on charges brought against us (2). 2 Athenagoras is clearly writing because he believes Christians are being unfairly persecuted and should be given a fair trial. Similarly Justin Martyr concludes his first Apology, and do not decree death against those who have done no wrong (1.68). 3 Again unfair persecution has led him to expound the faith to show that the Christians are innocent. Indeed Norris has observed that it may have been the unjust martyrdom of Polycarp which formed the immediate impetus for Justin s first Apology. 4 1 Richard A. Norris Jr., The Apologists in The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature, ed. by A. Louth and others (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p.36 2 Athenagoras, A Plea Regarding the Christians in Early Christian Fathers, trans. by Cyril C. Richardson (London: SCM Press, 1953) pp.300-340 3 Justin Martyr, The First Apology in The First and Second Apologies trans. by Leslie William Barnard (New York: Paulist Press, 1997) pp.23-72 4 Norris, p.38 1
One particular factor in relation to persecution was the tendency to condemn people simply for the name Christian. We see Justin aware of this factor when he states from a name neither approval nor punishment could fairly come, unless something excellent or evil in action could be shown about it (1.4). Hall observes [a] common complaint is against persecution merely for the name of Christian. 5 The Apologists therefore wanted to encourage the rulers to consider the actual behaviour of Christians. Much persecution was evidently based on false accusations and rumours about Christians. An examination of the Apologists shows that these accusations were a key factor in leading them to write. There is regular mention of charges brought against us (Apology 1.3), slanders (Athenagoras 18) and multitudes of accusations which have not the slightest foundation (Athenagoras 1). They were clearly keen to point out that there was no truth behind such accusations; the tales about us rest only on popular and uncritical rumour (Athenagoras 2). Consequently they wrote to offer an opportunity of inspecting our life and teachings (Apology 1.3), recognising that their only enemies were ignorance of what [Christianity] is. 6 This factor led them to present the truth clearly. Justin believed that ignorance may be escaped from, if the truth is set over against it (Apology 1.12). Likewise Athenagoras gave a full report to prevent your being carried away by popular and irrational opinion, and so that you may know the truth (11). The false accusations brought against Christians were then, one of the key factors leading the Apologists to write. The Apologists writings reveal the content of some these accusations. The most common are summed up by Athenagoras: Three charges are brought against us: atheism, Thyestean feasts [cannibalism] and Oedipean intercourse [incest] (3). Hall observes that atheism was the most serious of charges brought against the Christians and likely stemmed from the fact many were Greco-Roman converts and so really had chosen to reject the gods. 7 Athenagoras dedicates the vast majority of his work (4-30) to countering this charge, emphasising its importance as a factor influencing the Apologists. Likewise Justin states we are 5 Stuart G. Hall, Doctrine and Practice in the Early Church (London: SPCK, 1991), p.49 6 Chadwick, Henry, Justin Martyr s Defence of Christianity in History and Thought of the Early Church (London: Variorum Reprints, 1982), p.278 7 Hall, p.51 2
called atheists (Apology 1.6) and goes on to explain that, far from being atheists, Christians believe in the one true God. The charge of cannibalism stemmed from misunderstandings of the Eucharist where Christians were said to eat the body of Christ. Athenagoras shows knowledge of such accusations, referring to them as impious feasts (31) and arguing that Christians couldn t possibly be involved in such behaviour because it would require murder and because their slaves would know and yet none had brought any such charges against them (35). Similarly Theophilus shows that Greek philosophers have encouraged cannibalism and thereby filled the world with iniquity (To Autolycus 3.5) 8. He is making the point that Christians couldn t conceive of being cannibals, unlike Greek thinkers. Justin also outlines the details of the Eucharist very clearly at the end of his First Apology, almost certainly in an attempt to dispel misunderstandings about it. 9 Rumours of incest stemmed from the Christians referring to each other as brothers and sisters. This led some to think that biological brothers and sisters were marrying. Theophilus comments on the prevalent rumour wherewith godless lips falsely accuse us...alleging that the wives of us all are held in common and made promiscuous use of; and that we even commit incest with our own sisters (3.4). Athenagoras displays knowledge of the same accusation. Having listed examples of incestuous intercourse in the pagan myths he declares [b]ut we...are so far from viewing such crimes with indifference that we are not even allowed to indulge in a lustful glance (32). Two further accusations which motivated the Apologists were that Christians were a dissenting group who didn t recognise the Emperor s rule and who lived immoral lives. The first of these accusations is clear from Justin s First Apology where he argues that more than all other people we are your helpers and allies in the cause for peace (1.12) because they are looking towards a spiritual kingdom, not a human one. He later observes that Jesus himself taught Christians to pay their taxes, that they gladly serve the emperor and pray for him (1.17). The anonymous Letter to Diognetus 8 Theophilus, Theophilus to Autolycus in Fathers of the Second Century, ed. by Philip Schaff, Ante-Nicene Fathers, II (Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics Ethereal Library), pp.174-274 9 Hall, p.50 3
shows the same accusation as a factor leading to its writing with the author stating [Christians] obey the established laws (5.10). 10 The charge of immoral living clearly motivated both Justin and Athenagoras. Justin cites many examples of Jesus moral teaching and concludes that anyone who calls themselves a Christian but doesn t keep such teaching is not truly a Christian (1.14-16). To Justin an evil living Christian...is a contradiction. 11 Athenagoras makes the same point, for no Christian is wicked unless he is a hypocrite (2). Thus we can see that these charges were an important factor in leading the Apologists to expound and defend their faith. The Intellectual Context The second main branch of factors which lead the Apologists to write was the intellectual context. Greek intellectual culture was dominated by the many different philosophical schools in the early centuries after Christ. In the first century philosophy had been largely rejected by the Christians since heretical groups such as the Gnostics had arisen from the combination of philosophy and Christianity. Philosophy therefore came to seem like the mother of heresy. 12 However, by the second century things were different, so when Justin Martyr was converted at the end of a long journey through the philosophies of his day [h]e regarded Christianity as the true philosophy, and accordingly began to wear the recognised costume of a teacher of philosophy. 13 Chadwick observes that the Apologists were the first Christians to make a serious attempt to determine the relations between Christianity and philosophy. 14 The belief that Christianity was the true philosophy was another key factor leading the Apologists to write. Justin s viewpoint is revealed in the First Apology, we will show that we worship Him rationally...give heed as we expound it to you (1.13) and we will now offer proof...the strongest and surest evidence (1.30). Theophilus similarly refers to a previous conversation he had had with 10 The So-Called Letter to Diognetus in Early Christian Fathers, trans. by Cyril C. Richardson (London: SCM Press, 1953), pp.213-224 11 Chadwick, Justin Martyr, p.286 12 Henry Chadwick, The Early Church (London: Penguin, 1993) p.74 13 Chadwick, Early Church, p.75 14 Chadwick, Justin Martyr, p.275 4
Autolycus reminding him you supposed our doctrine was foolishness. Theophilus is keen to counter this claim and states his intention to show the vain and empty worship which Autolycus partakes in and to make the truth plain (2.1). These examples show that the desire to defend the truth of Christianity, against contemporary philosophy and religion, was a motivating factor for the Apologists. Critique of pagan religion is one of the ways in which the Apologists writings make evident the influence of this factor. Theophilus observes the madness that as soon as an idol is bought it is deemed of great value, even being considered divine (2.2). Similarly the Letter to Diognetus displays the absurdity of Gentile worshipers who worship what they have just made and what is perishable (2). This critique shows the influence of the intellectual context as Christians seek to show the rational basis of their faith, in contrast to Greco-Roman religion. One of the clearest examples of this factor in the Apologists is the way they began to claim that Greek culture pointed to and was consummated in the Christian message, just as the Old Testament was. 15 This is seen in Justin when he gives many examples of how Greek philosophers give similar examples to the virgin birth and the idea that a man can be the son of God, arguing from them that such belief can therefore be recognised as rational (1.18-22). He defends Christianity as the true expression of these facts claiming that demons stole the ideas from the prophets and put them in Greek thought so the Christians would later be accused of stealing them (1.54). Theophilus takes up the same idea recounting the Old Testament narrative and the message of the prophets (2.10-35) and then showing how Greek philosophers and poets confirmed some of the points (36-38). Theophilus likewise argues that this was without meaning to do so and was because they had been inspired by demons (2.8). This attempt to use Greek thought to display the rationality and truth of Christianity is strong evidence that the intellectual context of the second century was a significant factor leading the Apologists to write. The Logos Theory is another key element of the Apologists writings which shows this influence in motivating their defence and explanation of the Christian faith. Justin used the platonic idea of the Logos, a mediator between the transcendental God and His creation, to explain how God the Father has intervened in his creation and how the prophets were able to speak of what Christ would do so 15 Hall, p.50 5
far in advance. As Hall has observed the distinct Binitarian nature of the Apologists thought and the noticeable lack of Trinitarian thinking shows that [t]hey began from what appeared to be common ground with Greek thought. 16 Justin equated the Logos with [God s] Son, who is alone properly called Son (2.6) 17. This appeal to the concepts of Greek philosophy shows that displaying Christianity as the true philosophy was an important factor leading the Apologists to write. Conclusion We conclude then that two overarching factors, evident in their writings, led the Apologists to expound and defend their Christian faith: the occurrence of persecution often based on false accusations and the intellectual context in which the Apologists wanted to show Christianity as rational and superior. 16 Hall, p.52 17 Justin Martyr, The Second Apology in The First and Second Apologies trans. by Leslie William Barnard (New York: Paulist Press, 1997) pp.73-85 6
Bibliography 1. The Apologists Writings Early Christian Fathers, trans. by Cyril C. Richardson (London: SCM Press, 1953) Fathers of the Second Century, ed. by Philip Schaff, Ante-Nicene Fathers, II (Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics Ethereal Library) Justin Martyr, The First and Second Apologies trans. by Leslie William Barnard (New York: Paulist Press, 1997) 2. Secondary Sources Chadwick, Henry, Justin Martyr s Defence of Christianity in History and Thought of the Early Church (London: Variorum Reprints, 1982), pp.275-297 Chadwick, Henry, The Early Church (London: Penguin, 1993) Hall, Stuart G., Doctrine and Practice in the Early Church (London: SPCK, 1991) The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature, ed. by A. Louth and others (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004) 7