INSCRIPTIONS Apart from the scarce information we find in the texts of ancient authors our knowledge on everyday-life in the Roman world largely rests on archeologocal evidence. Villages, towns with their public and private buildings, villas and roads have been excavated. We know about Roman handicraft, tools, art and gadgets. In this respect a great deal of information may be gained from the numerous inscriptions that have been found so far. The science focussing on the decoding of these inscriptions is called epigraphy (from the Greek verb επιγραϕειν = to write on sth). Reading inscriptions we learn about the thoughts and the feelings of ordinary people hardly ever present in traditional literary records. Almost all inscriptions on durable material (stone, marble, bronze) discovered up to now are either documented in the CORPUS INSCRIPTIONUM LATINARUM (CIL), which was founded by the great philologist Theodor MOMMSEN, or the annual magazine ANNEE EPIGRAPHIQUE (AE). The most important types if inscriptions: 1. DEDICATIONS: Especially the ordinary and common people of ancient times had the feeling of being helplessly cast at the mercy of fate and other undefineable forces. Thus they sought to guarantee the specific support of these divine forces through certain vows. To this end but also to express their gratitude towards the numerous deities many altars were erected. These stones show characteristic forms: : Above a pedestal there is a shaft mostly carrying the inscription. On top you can find a cornice with a shallow deeping for holding the offerings and incense. The inscription shows the name of the deity, often with an additional name, in the dative followed by the name of the person dedicating the stone. Often the inscription mentions for whom or whose well-being or PRO SALUTE SUA ET SUORUM the dedication was carried out. At the end there is almost always the abbreviation of the dedication formula VOTUM SOLVIT LIBENS LAETUS MERITO = willingly, gladly and deservedly fulfilled a vow. In the provinces indigenous deities are hardly ever mentioned but rather appear adapted to Roman religious (=INTERPRETATIO ROMANA). As a matter of fact the Romans willingly accepted different religious beliefs and often even adopted cults and mystic beliefs 1
Common abbreviations: divine titles: D.S.I.M. To the Invincible Sun Mithras D.I.M. To the Invincible God Mithras I.O.M. To Jupiter Best and Greatest D.D.Q. To the gods and goddesses AVG Augustus/-a (as an epitheton) dedication formulae: PRO SAL pro salute I.D.F. iussu dei/ deorum fecit (fecerunt) V.S.L.L.M. votum solvit/ solverunt libens/ libentes laetus/ laeti merito/ meritis 2. Epitaphs: Epitaphs were ususally chiselled into high, erected tombstones or smaller slabs. Sometimes the stones also show a portrait of the deceased in the form of a bust or a relief. Epitaphs mention the name of the deceased in the nominative or in the dative with the addition of the name of the person who has planted the stone: relatives, heirs or close friends. Das römische name system: Roman citizens were addressed in the form of the system of the tria nomina. The nomen gentile showed allegiance to a certain Roman gens (family). the praenomen, originally an individual name, soon lost ist importance and was abbreviated when the number of praenomina was reduced. The cognomen, originally only used in families of the upper classes to distinguish the different branches of the clan, became more popular around the turn of the eras. Between gentile and cognomen there is often the name of the father, mostly his abbreviated praenomen in the genitive accompanied by an f(ilius). This part of the inscription is called filiation. Indiginous people, imperial subjects without citizenship held on to the old Indo-European name system: Individual name plus name of the father in the genitive. If such a peregrinus acquired the Roman citizenship, he adopted a nomen gentile (soldiers usually that of the emperor) and used his previous individual name as a cognomen. The same held true with freed slaves who adopted praenomen and gentile of their former masters. 2
Common abbreviations: Introductory formulae: D.M. Di(i)s Manibus D.M.P.S. Dis Manibus (et) perpetuae securitate Names: A (Aulus), C (Gaius), D (Decimus), L (Lucius), M (Marcus oder Manius), N (Numerius), P (Publius), Q (Quintus), SEX (Sextus), SP (Spurius), T (Titus) TI(B) (Tiberius); Gentile names: AEL (Aelius), AVR (Aurelius), CL (Claudius), FL (Flavius), IVL (lulius), VLP (Ulpius) After the genitive of a name (abbrev. praenomen) F filius L libertus, liberta SER servus, serva Indications of age : A, AN, ANN annorum (Gen. qual.) V.A. vixit annos STI(P) stipendiorum Other formulae: B.M. bene merenti, bonae memoriae F. fecit, fecerunt F.F. filius fecit, filii fecerunt F.F.C. filius faciendum curavit, filii faciendum curaverunt H.F.C. heres faciendum curavit HH heredes H.S.E. hic situs est/ sita est H.S.S. hic siti/ sitae sunt P. posuit/ posuerunt, positum P.P. parentes posuerunt, patronus posuit, pro pietate, parentibus pientissimis 3
T.F.I. V.F. testamento fieri iussit vivus/ viva/ vivi fecit/ fecerunt A characteristic feature of Roman inscriptions are ligatures, a combination of two or more letters. These were used either because of limits of space or pleasure derived from the forms of the new letters.. 3. IMPERIAL AND MONUMENTAL INSCRIPTIONS, MILESTONES: A special group of inscriptions mentions Roman emperors. There are honorary inscriptions, set up by whole communities or individuals, often together with statues of the respective emperor. The name of the honored person usually appears in the dative also mentioning all the official title and decorations. The position of the emperor rested on a cleverly chosen combination of functions, which had already existed in the time of the Republic and now, together with the supreme command over the armed forces, enabled the unique position of the princeps. Since Augustus a certain scheme has evolved: PARTS OF THE IMPPERIAL TITLE: IMPERATOR CAESAR AUGUSTUS: since 27 BC this official name of Augustus formed the frame of each later emperor s title. PONTIFEX MAXIMUS: this highly influental priestly position is traditionally put in the first place. TRIBUNICIA POTESTAS: a function of great internal importance. eine Funktion von großer innenpolitischer Bedeutung. Without being tribune himself the emperor had all the rights and duties granted to them As this office was counted each year, imperial inscriptions can be dated rather correctly by considering the number attached to the tribunicia potestas (in the gen. or. abl.). 4
IMPERATOR: Apart from the title "imperator" at the head of their names, emperors occasionally mention how often they have adopted this title, which had also been popular in Republican times, after important victories. CONSUL: Emperors don t mention their cursus honorum, but how often they have been consul. The consulate in imperial times had a somewhat infringed authority. PATER PATRIAE: this honorary title, which Augustus has considered to be the greatest of his career, was given to later emperors almost regularly. Additionally imperial names often also mention the names of the emperors forefathers, especially in the case of the adoptive emperors, who often list the names as far back as Nerva. Occasionally honorary titles referring to defeated peoples, often with the attachment maximus (e.g.: Parthicus maximus), and further phrases of praise may also be added. Inscriptions on monuments erected by a high-ranking person or even the emperor himself (all military buildings) show the name of the founder in the nominative. Milestones take the middle of the road between monumental and honorary inscriptions. They were positioned along the main Roman routes throught the empire. They show the emperor s specific care for the Roman road system and were not erected in regular distances and often do not even mention the distance to the next municipium. They often just served the purpose of signposts at tricky crossroads. In general they were 2 m high and had a diameter of 50 cms. The inscriptions obeyed a common pattern within each province. Comman abbreviations: IMPERIAL TITLE: D dominus P. P pater patriae D.N dominus noster P.F.INV pius felix invictus AVGG Augusti duo (common reign) RANKS: 5
Military references like TRIBUS or military ranks are mostly abbreviated. There were 35 TRIBUS (areas drafting citizens into the army, always in the abl.), z. B.: AEMILIA, CAMILIA, CLAUDIA, FABIA, PAPIRIA, POLLIA, POMPTINA, QUIRINA,... Inscriptions carrying the names of Roman soldiers usually follow this system: PRAENOMEN, NOMEN GENTILE, FILIATION, TRIBUS, COGNOMEN, DOMUS (place of residence in the abl.), rank, age, serving time. MIL miles EQ eques P.P primus pilus, primipili (highest ranking centurio) B od. B.F beneficiarius (sergeant) FUNCTIONS IN AUTONOMOUS TOWNS: II VIR.I.D. duovir iure dicundo AED aedilis AEDILIC aedilicia potestate, aedilicius (former aedilis) Q quaestor DEC decurio D.D decreto decurionum ( after a resolution of the city council") P.P pecunia publica 111111V1RAVG sevir Augustalis (a priestly office ) ROMAN CIVIL SERVANTS: COS consul AVG augur PR.PRAET pro praetor TR.PL tribunus plebis AED.CVR aedilis curulis Q quaestor LEG. LEG legatus legionis (also mentioning the troup) LEG.AVG.PR.PR legatus Augusti pro praetore (senatorial governor) PROC procurator PRAEF praefectus PR praeses 6
A.V.P agens vices praesidiis (substituting governor) Individual abbreviations may take different meaning! http://www.roman-britain.org/latin.htm : This site offers a useful list of Latin Abbreviations and acronyms. UBI ERAT LUPA: The database of the Forschungsgesellschaft Wiener Stadtarchäologie, which is a European project supported by the EU, already provides access to around 8000 Roman stone monuments and Roman inscriptions. http://www.ubi-erat-lupa.org also offers a practicable glossary on the abbreviations used in epigraphy. The site is currently only available in German but will be rendered into English soon. 7