Name: Date: ANSWER KEY for Fill-ins PART II WORKBOOK PART II THE CLASSICAL PERIOD, 1000 B.C.E. 500 C.E.: UNITING LARGE REGIONS In the classical period, China, India, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East all saw the development of large regional civilizations, and, in some cases, massive empires. These civilizations had not only the greatest concentrations of people, but also influenced areas outside their control. For the most part, little contact existed between the regions, but for some, trade forged links, and sometimes served to further an exchange of ideas. Syncretism was often a result of this exchange. Triggers for Change. The transition to the classical period was slow, and not marked by sharp changes. Developing technology seems to have been a commonality, causing changes in China and Persia, and was a factor in the fall of Harrapan India. The Big Changes. The formation of large regional cultures permits historians to attempt broad comparisons of political forms, economic developments and mentalities. For example, in all of the areas, the civilizations that marked this period have proved to have lasting influence. Moreover, each area developed a common culture, especially in ideology. Conquest was also a commonality. Finally, in each area, later periods would look back to this age with admiration, and the foundations for many later developments were laid. Continuity. Although technology was a factor in change, the era was not marked by widespread innovation. In the rural world in particular, continuity was more common than change. Patriarchy remained the norm, now integrated into new cultural systems. In general, some of the hallmarks of the earlier civilizations money and law codes for instance were carried forward and further developed. Impact on Daily Life: Old Age. A respect for the aged was common to all of the great cultural regions. Confucianism in China placed special value on veneration of elders. The Mediterranean culture, especially that of Classical Greece, showed greater variation, the infirmities of old age being a common theme in literature. Trends and Societies. Chapters 4 through 6 that follow trace the developments of each of the major areas. Chapter 7 focuses on the history of Rome. Chapter 8 turns to the Americas, which have more in common with earlier periods of the river valley systems elsewhere. Chapter 9 also deals with areas outside the main areas of the classical civilizations, concentrating on Afro-Eurasia and the Pacific. Chapter 10 returns to the classical civilizations, following the decline in these areas, and religious innovations.
CHAPTER 4 Unification and the Consolidation of Civilization in China Chapter Summary. The Zhou dynasty in the 8th century B.C.E. lost control of its vassals. Internal political disorder was increased by nomadic pressure. The unstable times eventually led to the emergence of a more complex classical society. Political stabilization began in the 3rd century B.C.E. with the victories of Shi Huangdi of the Qin dynasty. Unwise policies by the Qin rulers caused revolts ending with the emergence of the Han dynasty in 207 B.C.E. The Han, ruling over 400 years, reestablished and expanded the extent of Chinese civilization and created a lasting sense of Chinese identity. They founded an enduring bureaucracy whose members were a major influence on social and cultural development. KEY TERMS 1. Qin: 2. Shi Huangdi: 3. Warring States period: 4. Confucius: 5. Mencius: 6. Sunzi: 7. Laozi: 8. Daoism: 9. Legalists: 10.Great Wall: 11.Sunzi:. 12.Liu Bang: 13.Han: 14.Scholar-gentry: 15.Secret societies: 16.Forbidden city: 17.Wang Mang: 18.Eunuchs: Fill Ins: pp. 81-85 Philosophical Remedies for the Prolonged Crisis of the Later Zhou. The continuing disorder marking the decline of the Zhou dynasty prompted debate over appropriate remedies. Widespread warfare awarded societal value to military skills and depressed the worth of the shi. Aristocratic power grew while the shi fell to minor occupations. Rituals and court etiquette were replaced by rough nomadic manners. Warfare consumed state resources and public works, including dikes and canals, were ruined. Peasants were taxed heavily and conscripted into the military. The need for military materials stimulated commerce, helping the growth of a prosperous merchant class with an important role in society. By the end of the Zhou period, China supported larger urban centers than any other contemporary civilization. Confucius and the Restoration of the Shi. By the 5th century B.C.E., thinkers, including Confucius, sought ways to create a stable society and political structure. Confucius, a member of a poor shi family, became a traveling teacher whose political and philosophical ideas attracted followers. He was a social philosopher concerned with the need to reestablish order and harmony in China; he thought that achieving order depended upon rulers accepting the
advice of superior men women were excluded who were awarded power because of their moral excellence. Such men, recruited from the shi, would gain wisdom through education and, in principle, could be from any social class. The Confucian Gentleman. Confucius thought that the superior man defended his decisions against all opposition. Rulers should receive deference, but the shi should criticize them for neglecting their subjects welfare. The shi gentleman was a generalist equally accomplished in public and private aspects of life. With such men, said Confucius, China would be peaceful, its social struggles over. The Heirs of Confucius. The most important division among Confucius s disciples was between Mencius and Sunzi. Mencius believed that humans were good by nature and that government should develop that goodness. He stressed that the consent of the common people was the basis of political power, and that they had the right to overthrow oppressive rulers. Sunzi thought that humans by nature were lazy and evil, thus requiring a strong and authoritarian government. Education could improve people, he thought, but he rejected the idea that government was based on their consent. The later Legalist school of thought embraced his views. Daoist Alternatives. The philosopher Laozi offered an alternative to Confucianism. Although he urged rulers to cultivate patience, selflessness, and concern for the welfare of all creatures, Laozi thought that a strong state and absolute ethical prescriptions were not significant in solving human suffering. Laozi instead advocated a retreat from society into nature where individuals could attune with the Dao, or cosmic force. Some of his followers, particularly among the shi, followed Laozi s stress on meditation. Others mixed his ideas with magic and eroticism and sought immortality. Chapter Questions 1. What were the political, social, and economic consequences of the period of the Warring States? 2. Describe Confucius s political philosophy. 3. What changes in Confucius s political philosophy were made by his disciples? 4. Describe the Daoist alternative to Confucian political philosophy. 5. What was the significance of the Qin dynasty? 6. Discuss the impact of Sunzi s political philosophy. 7. How did the Han institutionalize Confucian political philosophy? 8. Discuss the status of each of the following groups during Han times: scholar-gentry, women, peasants, merchants, artisans.
CHAPTER 5 Classical Civilizations in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East Chapter Summary. Classical Greece built on the legacy of earlier regional civilizations in the Middle East, Egypt, Crete, and Mycenae. Internal warfare and Indo-European invasions destroyed the early civilization by 1100 B.C.E. By 800 B.C.E. a new classical civilization began to emerge. Greek politics and culture flourished until 400 B.C.E. Then Alexander the Great formed a military empire and introduced the Hellenistic period, a time when Greek culture spread widely in the Middle East, North Africa, and southern Europe. The Greeks demonstrated new political and cultural capacities in philosophy and politics, and in scientific and mathematical advances. The Greek legacy influenced many later societies. KEY TERMS 1. Cyrus the Great: 2. Zoroastrianism: 3. Hellenism: 4. Hellenistic culture: 5. Iliad and Odyssey: 6. Polis: 7. Solon:. 8. Socrates: 9. Direct democracy: 10.Pericles: 11.Olympic games: 12.Oracle of Delphi: 13.Persian Wars: 14.Delian League: 15.Peloponnesian War: 16.Macedon: 17.Philip II: 18.Alexander the Great: (r. 336 323 B.C.E.); 19.Alexandria: 20.Ptolemies: 21.Seleucids: 22.Antigonids: 23.Socrates: 24.Aristotle: 25.Stoics: 26.Plato: 27.Sophocles: 28.. Aristophanes: 29.Doric, Ionic, Corinthian: 30.Helots: The Political Character of Classical Greece. The Greeks highly valued political activity, contributing greatly to the later developments of democratic cultures. Although Greek communities had varied political forms, aristocratic rule was prevalent. A general revival of eastern Mediterranean trade spurred the growth of Greek city-
states and challenged existing political structures. The Greeks during the 8th century B.C.E. simplified the Phoenician alphabet to write their own language. The spread of literacy enhanced commercial exchanges and cultural life. The Iliad and the Odyssey were written down and provided a mythic foundation for Hellenic culture. In architecture, the Greeks developed distinctive forms based upon an oblong building framed by pillars. Sculpture moved to a more realistic portrayal of the human body, while decorated pottery depicted scenes of human activity. The City-State as a Political Unit. After 800 B.C.E., the prevailing form of government was the city-state (polis): polities varying in size and embracing a city and its dependent agricultural hinterland. Many city-states formed, independent and frequently in conflict with each other. The city-states were ruled by land-owning aristocrats descended from Indo-European warriors. They and free farmer citizens met in councils, even when there were kings, to discuss political issues. After 700 B.C.E. the system of aristocratic control was challenged as a result of commercial expansion and the growth of specialized commercial agriculture. Small landholders suffered and a growing gulf emerged between the rich and poor. In purely agricultural regions, some aristocratic oligarchies, such as Sparta, remained unchallenged, but others faced steady pressure. By the 6th century B.C.E., urban commercial groups and dispossessed farmers sought reform. Tyrants won support by challenging aristocratic interests. Other reformers, like Solon of Athens, labored to develop new laws to regulate economic relationships. Additional cause for change came from the democratization of military service by qualified citizens. By 500 B.C.E. most city-states were based upon principles of loyalty to the public community rather than to an individual ruler. Male citizens were immersed in the public life of the polis. Since each city- state had its own gods, religious rituals also deepened participation. The Rise of Democracy in Athens. Athens took the lead in democratic development, but Solon s reforms did not resolve all societal tensions. Peisistratus ruled as a tyrant, but following his death, the reformer Cleisthenes reestablished a council elected by all citizens. Athens continued to depend upon a popular assembly of citizens as sovereign authority, and citizens formed the army and the judiciary. Most officials were chosen by lot and were responsible to the assembly. Athenian democracy was both more extensive and less inclusive by modern standards. Many adults women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded from political rights, and aristocrats like Pericles and Alcibiades had excessive importance. A Comparison of Greek and Chinese Political Styles. Greek political life emphasized individual participation, but in a heterogeneous system quite different from the single centralized Chinese state. Formal law was more important to the Greeks, while the Chinese stressed bureaucratic codes. Greek Diplomacy and the Tensions of United Effort. Many city-states founded colonies along the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Colonization relieved population pressure, and provided grain supplies and markets for Greek products. The city-states were only occasionally united. They came together under a truce at the Olympic games and recognized the oracle at Delphi. An important collaboration occurred when Greeks united and preserved independence by defeating a Persian invasion. After the wars, Athens dominated other Greek city-states through an alliance, the Delian League. Athens gained valuable resources, but the new wealth caused political divisions and infighting. Athens versus Sparta. The growing power of a democratic, commercially active Athens led to competition with oligarchic, conservative, and militaristic Sparta. When Corcyra tried to free itself from Athenian domination in 435 B.C.E., warfare between the two powers of Greece ensued. The Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta lasted from 431 to 404 B.C.E. Athens, weakened by a disastrous plague and an unsuccessful invasion of Sicily, surrendered to Sparta in 404 B.C.E. The defeat marked the end of the polis as the dominant political form in Greece.
Chapter Questions: 1. How does Greek civilization compare and contrast to other civilizations? 2. Define a polis. How did the polis change between 800 and 400 B.C.E.? 3. How did Greek city-states work together? Why were they often separate? 4. Compare the political structure of Hellenistic Greece with that of the Greek world before 400 B.C.E. 5. What was the function of philosophy in Greek culture? 6. What, were the principles of Greek culture? 7. Why was the Greek economy so market-oriented? 8. Discuss the role of slavery in Greek economic and social life. 9. Discuss the status of women in society.what effect did class position have on women s roles?
CHAPTER 6 Religious Rivalries and India s Golden Age Chapter Summary. The basis for Indian civilization after 1500 B.C.E. was laid by Aryan invaders who ended Harappan civilization. By 500 B.C.E., states ruled by kings claiming divine descent controlled much of the Ganges Plains. Its settlement resulted in the clearing of forest lands and contributed to broad climatic changes. Rigid social castes developed, with brahmans emerging as dominant because of their literary and religious functions. Discontented with empty rituals, ascetic holy men offered new religious ideas. Buddha began a religion that challenged Vedic tradition; the resulting rivalry led to a revitalized Hinduism that survived the Buddhist challenge. The religious unfolding accompanied the rise of India s 1st empire during the 4th century B.C.E. The Mauryans spread Buddhist teachings through Asia before falling to nomadic invasions. A later dynasty, the Gupta, during the 4th century C.E. restored unity, and reasserted brahmanic dominance. Hinduism presided over an age of splendid artistic and intellectual achievement. KEY TERMS 1. Himalayan Mountains: 2. Varnas: 3. Untouchables: 4. Rama: 5. Dharma: 6. Karma: 7. Transmigration: 8. Reincarnation: 9. Mahabharata, Ramayana: 10.Buddha: 11.Nirvana 12.Maurya dynasty: 13.Chandragupta Maurya: 14.Kautilya: 15.Arthashastra 16.Ashoka: 17.Stupas: 18.Upanishads: 19.. Shiva, Vishnu, Kali, and Lakshmi: 20.Gupta dynasty: 21.The Signet Ring of Rakshasa (Mudra Rakshasa): 22.Mandalas: 23.Gurus: 24. Sanskrit: 25.. Kalidasa: 26.Kamasutra: 27.Skanda Gupta:
Fill Ins: pp. 127-132 An Era of Widespread Social Change. Other important social changes included the growth of towns around royal capitals or riverbank trading and manufacturing centers. Merchants and artisans became distinctive social groups. As farming replaced herding, peasants made up a large percentage of the population. Peasant villages, their members developing better irrigation systems and tools, spread through the rain forest. Both subsistence and luxury crops were grown. The Caste System. The original Aryan social order altered. New social divisions among Indians consisted of broad categories (varnas) arranged in a hierarchical system based upon the degree to which occupations were considered polluting. At the top of the order were the brahman, warrior, and merchant castes. Most of the population were members of peasant and artisan castes. Below them were the untouchables who performed defiling tasks. Over time, caste boundaries hardened. Status determined diet and whom one could marry. Only members of the three highest varnas could read the Vedas. Enforcing Social Divisions. Although castes over time could rise or fall in status, the position of individuals, determined by birth, was permanent. Since the system was believed to be of divine origin, all individuals had to accept their place (dharma). Failure to accept one s status meant ostracism or death. Transmigration of souls explained individual status. Souls existed through many lives and earned merits or demerits (karma) during one existence that determined status in a new life. The Family and the Changing Status of Women. The extended family was the ideal, although only the higher castes were able to support the attendant costs. The majority of families lived in nuclear households. The father held extensive authority over family members. Women were regarded as weak and unstable by nature and were subordinate to men. The great epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, indicate an earlier greater freedom. Women then read the Vedas, practiced many occupations, and participated in ceremonies that celebrated high- caste membership. Thinking Historically: Inequality as the Social Norm. The Indian complex mode of social organization, the caste system, is built on the belief that humans are inherently unequal. An individual s place in life depends upon the social strata of his or her birth. As all classical social systems with limited exceptions among the Greeks and Chinese the caste system stressed the primacy of broad social groups over the importance of individuals. Castes were directly opposed to modern Western society s basic belief in individual equality and opportunity for social movement. The End of an Era. A civilization very different from the Harappan complex had emerged about 1000 years after the Aryan arrival. Well-established agriculture supported a complex society. The caste system provided both social stratification and labor division. Accomplishments in philosophy and religious speculation, as in the Bhagavad Gita, were important. Brahman dominance, endless warfare between kings, and religious and ethical bankruptcy prompted unrest and the beginning of a new era. Chapter Questions 1. What were the fundamental patterns of Indian civilization? 2. What were the sources of pre-imperial brahmanic authority? 3. How was the caste system organized? 4. How did the rise of Buddhism represent a challenge to the brahmans? 5. Compare and contrast the organization of the Maurya and Gupta empires. 6. What were the keys to the brahmans recovery in India? 7.Compare the status of women in classical India with other contemporary societies.
CHAPTER 7 Rome and Its Empire Chapter Summary. When the Greek and Hellenistic worlds declined, many of their political, cultural, and economic traditions were carried on by the Romans in their own distinct society. Rome grew from a minor citystate to become the dominant factor in Mediterranean civilization. Its civilization included much of the Greek and Hellenistic sphere in the eastern Mediterranean and extended beyond it into Europe and North Africa. The Roman Empire surpassed the political and commercial organization of the Greeks in durability and organization. Its greater geographical extent spread the Roman version of classical Mediterranean civilization to new regions in Europe and North Africa and served as a breeding ground for the development of Christianity. KEY TERMS 1. Etruscans: 2. Plebians: 3. Consuls: 4. Clientage: 5. Legions: 6. Carthage: 7. Punic Wars: 8. Hannibal: 9. Republic: 10.Tribunes: 11. Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus: 12. Marius: 13. Sulla: 14. Julius Caesar: 15. Octavian (Augustus): 16. Cicero: 17. Vergil: 18. Horace: 19.Ovid: 20. Livy: 21. Trajan: 22. Jesus of Nazareth: 23. Bishops: 24. Paul: 25. Augustine: Chapter Questions: 1. Compare and contrast Roman civilization to Greek civilization. 2. Describe the republican constitution of Rome. 3. How did the territorial expansion of the republic affect the society and politics of Rome? 4. Compare and contrast Greek and Roman culture. 5. Describe the constitution of the Roman Empire. 6. Compare and contrast Greek and Roman social organization. 7. Why did Christianity spread within the Roman Empire?
8. How did the status of women in the Roman Empire compare with women s position in other contemporary empires? 9. What was the legacy of the Roman Empire to successor Western civilizations? Fill ins Pp. 158-162 Thinking Historically: The Classical Civilizations in Comparative Perspective. The three great classical civilizations had both striking differences and similarities. Each developed empires, and relied on an agricultural economy. Greece, Rome, and China emphasized secular over religious culture. Greco-Roman political values and institutions were unlike the Confucian emphasis on deference and bureaucratic training. The Greek emphasis on theoretical constructs in science contrasted with the Indian and Chinese approach. Each civilization had a definite social hierarchy and the groups at the top subordinated those beneath them to assure their economic supremacy. Greece and Rome depended upon slave labor. The groups at the top varied in the three civilizations priests in India, bureaucrats in China, cultivated aristocrats in Greece and Rome. There was limited opportunity for social mobility. India s caste system kept people in their original social and occupational position. In China only a very few individuals from non-landed aristocratic families managed to gain the education to enter the bureaucracy. Greek and Roman society allowed some opportunity for those gaining wealth to rise in status. The concept of political power for Greek and Roman citizens was unusual. Each civilization held its social hierarchy together in a different manner. Greece and Rome relied on local authorities to work for common goals; they also relied on military force and clear legal regulations. China and India used force and legal rules, but had other structures. Hinduism promised reincarnation as a reward for submission. Confucianism urged cultural values of obedience and self-restraint to legitimize social ranks. All civilizations had bouts of social unrest, but basic patterns remained firm. The Origins of Christianity. The early history of Christianity is an integral part of the Roman experience. The Jews, ruled by Rome, believed in the coming of a messiah. The early stages of what became Christianity, arising in a remote province and primarily appealing to poor people, focused on reforming aspects of Jewish practices and had little to do with Roman culture. Life and Death of Jesus. Jesus, a Jewish prophet and teacher, was regarded as the son of God by his disciples. He urged purification of Jewish religion and taught a moral code based upon love, charity, and humility. Jesus won many followers among the poor, but roused suspicion among the leaders of the Jewish community. They helped to convince the Roman authorities that he was a danger to the state. Jesus was crucified in 30 C.E. His followers believed he rose from the dead three days later. The religion based on his teachings initially spread among Jews in the Middle East, but the failure of the immediate return to earth of the Messiah, plus hostility and persecution from unconvinced Jews, caused disciples to spread through and beyond the empire. Christianity Gains Converts and Religious Structure. By the 4th century C.E., Christians comprised about 10 percent of the population of the Roman Empire. Christianity appealed to the poor because of the social grievances suffered by farmers, city dwellers, and slaves. The new religion answered spiritual needs unfilled by Rome s state religion. Christianity also benefited from the political stability and communications systems of the empire. The early Christians modeled their church organization after Roman forms, with bishops as local leaders. Under Paul s leadership the religion moved away from Jewish law to become open to all. He used the Greek language and explained Christianity in terms understandable to Greco-Roman culture. He emphasized female subordination to men and the dangers of sexuality. Relations with the Roman Empire. By the 4th century B.C.E., Christian writings were the most creative cultural expressions within the empire. Augustine and other theologians related Christian thought to Greek philosophy and Roman ethics, redirecting Roman culture into new paths and preserving earlier intellectual achievements. Christians clashed with Roman authorities when they refused to honor the emperor as a divinity. Some emperors persecuted Christians as scapegoats for political problems, but the persecution was not constant. Roman influence in time reshaped Christianity to accept the state as a legitimate, but separate, sphere of authority.
The Decline of Rome. The empire was in decline before Christianity became important. The government lacked the resources necessary for continuing expansion. Economic disruptions reduced prosperity and tax revenues. Pressure from border peoples increased. Slavery declined and economic and political units focused on their own regions, not the larger empire. Epidemics seriously reduced population size. The Classical Mediterranean Heritage. Rome preserved and expanded the legacy of Greece, contributing in the areas of law, empire, and architecture, forming a lasting heritage. The great extent of the empire was a major factor, but the capacity to preserve that unity did not survive, as it did in China. GLOBAL CONNECTIONS: Rome and the World. Roman leaders were aware of the wider Mediterranean world and the Middle East. They both feared and incorporated aspects of Greek culture. Neighboring peoples, like the Germanic tribes, sought to enter the empire. Although the main focus of Roman activity was within its huge empire, commercial contacts reached through intermediaries to China. Some Romans visited India.
CHAPTER 10 The End of the Classical Era: World History in Transition, 200 700 C.E. Chapter Summary. Between 200 and 600 C.E., the three great classical civilizations of Rome, Han China, and Gupta India collapsed or declined. All three suffered from invasions by nomads who took advantage of internal imperial weaknesses. At the same time, new great religions spread. The general collapse formed a significant break in world history. Many components of the classical achievement survived the period of decline, and new forms appeared as civilizations altered to meet changing conditions. KEY TERMS 1. Yellow Turbans: 2. Sui: 3. Tang: 4. Harsha Vardharna: 5. Rajput: 6. Diocletian: 7. Constantine: 8. Byzantine Empire: 9. Mahayana: 10.Bodhisattvas: 11.Saints: 12.Council of Nicaea: 13.Leo I: 14.Augustine: 15.Benedict of Nursia: 16.St. Basil: Chapter Questions 1. What changes do the authors think necessary for identifying a new period in world history? 2. How did political instability affect China and India? 3. What are the causes for the fall of the western Roman Empire? 4. What were the results of the fall of the western Roman Empire? 5. Compare and contrast the doctrines of Buddhism and Christianity. 6. How did the map of civilization alter as a result of cultural diffusion after the disruption of the classical empires? 7.What was the fate of the nomadic invaders who contributed to the downfall of the classical empires? Fill ins Pp. 226-230 The Development and Spread of World Religions. The decline of the classical civilizations contributed to the growth of the three great world religions. Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam became the only religions spreading far beyond a single region. Hinduism and Daoism remained regional religions, but gained new followers. Christianity and Buddhism Compared. Both religions stressed otherworldliness, produced important monastic movements, and offered the possibility of an afterlife. Chinese Buddhism, called Mahayana, emphasized Buddha as a savior god similar to the Christian Christ. Each religion accepted a role for holy men among Buddhists called bodhisattvas aiding believers to gain holiness. There were differences. Christianity, the heir to the legacy of
Mediterranean religions and Roman traditions, emphasized church organization, gave more value to missionary activity, and claimed possession of exclusive truth. Early Christianity. Christianity began as a Jewish reform movement, only gradually turning to missionary activity. The Christians believed that there was a single god who loved humanity, that virtuous life should be devoted to his worship, and that Christ s sacrifice permitted attainment of an afterlife. The message, its travels facilitated by Roman unity, satisfied unfilled spiritual needs present in the deteriorating empire. Under Paul of Tarsus, Christianity became a separate religion open to all and was more formally organized. Christianity Gains Ground. Despite competition from Eastern mystery religions and government persecution, by the 4th century, Christianity had won over about 10 percent of the Roman Empire s population. Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and made it an accepted faith. Rulers intervened in church affairs, particularly in the eastern empire where government remained strong. In the disorganized West, bishops created a centralized church organization that endured when the western empire collapsed. Doctrinal controversies abounded. The Council of Nicaea (325) demonstrated the importance of unified doctrine to Christianity. Strong leaders assisted the consolidation of Christianity. Leo I clearly established the Roman papacy as the supreme religious authority in western Europe. Augustine made major contributions in formulating a theology that incorporated elements of classical philosophy. Mystics flourished, a tendency disciplined by the institution of monasticism. Benedict of Nursia created the Benedictine Rule for monks in 6th century Italy; Basil organized monasticism in the eastern empire in the 4th century. Christianity continued to appeal to all classes, especially to the poor and women. It promoted a new culture differing from that of the classical world in its beliefs in spiritual equality and otherworldly emphasis. The state was accepted, but made second to religion, where the brotherhood of all Christians prevailed. Classical values endured, including philosophical themes, architectural styles, and the Latin language in the West and Greek in the East. Monastic libraries preserved classical literature. The New Religious Map. The rise and spread of Christianity, Buddhism, and Islam over many centuries incorporated most of the inhabitants of the civilized world. Numerous peoples in different societies left old beliefs and turned to concentration on a single divine force and a hope for an afterlife. The world religions, a new force in world history, provided beliefs that transcended political entities and facilitated international trade. In the Wake of Decline and Fall. By 600 C.E. the major civilizations had altered in permanent ways. China maintained political cohesion; along with India, it preserved much cultural cohesion. In contrast, the Roman Empire disintegrated, and successor civilizations did not restore geographical unity or a unified classical culture. GLOBAL CONNECTIONS: The Late Classical Period and the World. Classical civilizations influenced other regions. When they started declining, contacts both accelerated and became more difficult. Commerce across Eurasia became dangerous, but ocean connections rose, especially in the Indian Ocean. Porous borders were penetrated by traders, missionaries, and nomadic invaders. Thus the end of the period experienced important cultural exchanges across regions.
PART II RETROSPECTIVE THE CLASSICAL PERIOD, 1000 B.C.E. 500 C.E.: UNITING LARGE REGIONS Contacts and Their Limits. Unlike the period of the river valley civilizations, the classical period that followed saw the development of regular contacts from China to the Mediterranean. Both sea and land routes were commonly used. A find from Taxila, Pakistan at the Roman city of Pompeii confirmed trade between the Roman Empire and India. Aside from trade, two other influential connections existed. In the first, following Alexander the Great s conquests, important cultural exchange resulted. Greek art and Greek science influenced Indian work. Indian missionaries appear to have influenced early Christianity. Moreover, as Rome took over Alexander s empire, it also fell heir to Hellenistic contacts with the East. In the second development, China became deeply influenced by Indian Buddhism. This is particularly noteworthy as the only example of significant outside influence on China until modern times. Finally, it is important, when assessing the contacts between these civilizations, to measure the lasting effects they had. In most cases in this period, developments within civilizations far outweighed the effects of outside influence.