Argument Writing Whooohoo!! Argument instruction is necessary * Argument comprehension is required in school assignments, standardized testing, job promotion as well as political and personal decision-making * High-school students, however, are not proficient argument processors, evaluators, or producers. * Only 13% of 12 th graders were judged skillful or excellent in a persuasive writing assessment * Only 12% of 12 th graders were at or above the proficient level in producing written arguments Argument Writing in College * Writing clear arguments is a skill that all college students have to develop both for continued success in the academic world as well as for future success in the career world. * Three skills that you should focus on developing: * Presenting a precise claim * Providing elaborated and supportive reasons * Presenting and dismissing common counterarguments Some Problems * Personalizers (two types) personal pronouns on claims and reasons, personal descriptions as evidence * Non-committers claim asserts and reasons support two sides * Listers Unelaborated reasons * Unwarranted reasons reason doesn t support the claim * Alternative claims providing an alternative solution as a reason * Circular reasoning reason is reworded claim * Journalers explore topic without a clear claim and reasons Common problems * Lack of claim precision Only 50% made clear claim on the controversy; many argued for a sub-claim leaving claim for reader to infer * Lack of backing Less than 1 elaboration per reason * My-side bias Only 48% of Unrestricted essays mentioned other side
The Elements of an Argument Cell phone use while driving should be permitted. Although this act may be considered dangerous, it actually can potentially save lives because people can immediately report crimes or accidents. Claim Cell phone use while driving should be permitted Reason Cell phones saves lives Backing People can immediately report crimes or accidents. Counter (other side) It is dangerous Warrant: The underlying assumption that connects your data to Backing: Additional logic or reasoning that may be necessary to your claim. support the warrant. Presenting a precise claim * A claim is a disputable statement that an author is trying to persuade the reader to accept. The claim is extremely important because it sets the tone and legitimacy of your argument where your readers will make their initial judgments about your particular issue. * If it is faulty in some way, you ve already lost them and your opportunity to change their minds. Precision is more important in arguments than any other form of writing. When you write your main claim, use clear and exact terms to convey to your reader what topic you ll be exploring as well as the stance you will take. In arguing with friends, we often do not concern ourselves with precision, but when writing arguments it critically important. Each of the following claims are on the same theme (speeding) but have very different stances (is harmful, is immoral, should be illegal, should not be done). * A. Speeding is harmful. (come up with reasons to prove) * B. Speeding is immoral. * C. Speeding should be illegal. * D. Speeding should not be done. Type of claims * There are several types of claims you can make. If you want to get people to agree to change their behavior directly, then you may want to use a policy claim predicate (i.e., verb) such as these two claims: Speeding laws should be strictly enforced. Speeding should be prohibited. * If you want to get people to agree to change their beliefs only, then you may want to use a value claim such as these three claims: Speeding is harmful. Speeding is immoral. * One special type of belief that you can argue is a causal or factual claim is true such as these two claims:
Speeding affects our fuel economy. Speeding is driving faster than 55 mph on our local highways. * When writing the main claim of your argument, be very careful in selecting the predicate ("should be enforced", "is harmful", "affects"). It should state what you really want to convince the reader to believe or do. A simple and direct claim is best if you want to be clearly understood. Claim predicate determines reasons * When writing your argument, the type of predicate you select for your claim will affect what evidence can support it. If the claim is that "Speeding laws should be strictly enforced", then you could present evidence that speeding is not currently being enforced or that speeding is so harmful that we need to catch more speeders. * If you are claiming that "Speeding is harmful", then you could present evidence that people have been injured or killed from speeding. * If your claim predicate asserts a causal relationship such as "Speeding affects our fuel economy", then you could present evidence that when a driver drives faster, they get poorer gas mileage. * When writing your claim, pick your words carefully and make sure not to switch what you are arguing throughout your essay. It is easy to drift to a new claim predicate when writing arguments. Policy claims * These types of claims have two parts. These type of arguments must establish that a problem exists and propose a policy that solves the problem. * When reading arguments, first, does the author you are reading convincingly establish that a problem exists? What evidence does he/she provide to support that? Make sure you completely understand this part before offering a solution. If no problem exists, then there is no reason to present a solution. * Second, once you have shown there is or is not a problem, next consider whether the proposed solution is a good one. A good solution should be fair, effective, not overly restrictive, and something that can be regulated by the government. For example, the government cannot regulate the number of pennies that each customer should carry at a given time, or can they? Claim checklist Take a stance on the controversy explicitly Does your claim take a side on this controversy? Don t leave it up to your reader to guess your position from another related claim like cell phones are dangerous because it is possible to argue that cell phones are dangerous but still not conclude that we should or should not ban them. If your main claim is not either there should or should not be a ban on using cell phones while driving, then you should change it.
Claim location Because your entire argument is organized around the claim, many author s begin their argument with an presentation of their claim early in the essay. To make sure the reader really got the message and remember it, author s also often end their essay with a restatement of the claim. Although there are other ways to organize an argument, this is a simple and common way to write an argument. Do NOT mark the claim personally When you write an argument, it is obvious that it is your opinion or belief. It weakens your claim when you include phrases like "I believe," or I think," or "Personally." Use the correct form Claims should not be commands (e.g. "Ban cell phones") or questions (e.g. "Should there be a ban on using cell phones while driving?"). Providing Elaborated and Supportive Reasons * An argument is an attempt to persuade readers to change their attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors by providing one or more reasons to support the claim. * One of the most common mistakes is to merely list reasons; however, when writing a strong argument, select the most important 3 or 4 reasons and focus on these. Write at least a single paragraph for each reason and in that paragraph explain, elaborate, give examples, and provide evidence, if possible, that supports the stance of the claim that you ve made. * If your reader doesn t really understand your reason and the implications of that reason, then they will not be convinced by it. Finally, make sure that the reasons you are providing support the exact claim that you have made, and that you haven t accidentally switched claims simply because you ve thought of a good reason. * Each reason must provide strong support for why someone should agree with your claim. If your claim is that we should ban cell phones, then each reason should indicate why this claim is true. Presenting Reasons 1. Present strong, convincing reasons 2. Avoid non-reasons 3. Elaborate on each reason
Present strong, convincing reasons * Focus on strong reasons When considering your reasons, you want to select the most important 3 or 4 reasons and focus on these. If these reasons are strong, 3 or 4 will generally be enough to create a serious argument. * Avoid support based on testimonials or personal experience Students arguments often rely too heavily on using their own experience to support their claims. However, using personal experiences as support is weak because they are based on only one person s experience or a small handful of people. Base your reasons on more general principles, such as Schools that use comprehensive exams may be pressured to lowering their standard to pass enough students. Generalizable statements are stronger than personal anecdotes. * Order reasons for impact How should you order your reasons? Research has found that people often recall first and last items the best, so it is good to present your strongest reasons first and last with your weaker reasons in the middle. Avoid non-reasons When thinking of your reasons, make sure they each make the claim more believable. Here are 3 types of "non-reasons" to avoid. Unwarranted reasons An unwarranted reason is one that is not relevant to the specific claim predicate. For example, "NIU should not have comprehensive exams because the exam would be boring". Being boring doesn t make something harmful. It is not a good reason for the university to decide not to do something. To check if a reason is warranted you have to pay special attention to the type of claim you are making "is harmful", "is immoral", "should be prohibited". Alternative claims Providing alternative solutions is not a good reason because they do not make the claim more believable. Consider this argument: "NIU should not have comprehensive exams because students who pass all their classes should be given a diploma. If you do provide an alternative, it is a new claim that needs to be supported by new reasons. Rewording the claim Simply restating the claim does not present a reason because it does not provide support for the claim. For example, "NIU should not have comprehensive exams because exit exams should not be a requirement for getting a diploma". This reason may feel like there is support, but the reason is just another way to say the claim.
Elaborate each reason * Write at least a single paragraph for each reason. Each reason must provide strong support for why someone should agree with your claim * In that paragraph explain, elaborate, give examples, and provide evidence, if possible, that supports the reason. If your reader doesn t really understand your reason and its implications, then they will not be convinced by it. * Make sure that the reasons you are providing support the exact claim that you have made, and that you haven t accidentally switched claims simply because you ve thought of a good reason. Presenting and Rebutting Common Counter Arguments * Readers usually think of at least one objection to your main claim, and, often, their objection will preoccupy them to the extent that they won t be able to focus on the argument you are presenting no matter how brilliant. * Address this by posing the potential objections and arguing against them so that the readers can dismiss them and be convinced by the rest of your argument. * Research has found that people are more persuaded by arguments that mention a common counter-argument and then rebut it. Further, your reader will be more convinced of your authority if you can dismiss something that the other side will say because it shows that you ve given the matter critical thought. Response to counter-arguments (We got to this slide)!! There are three main ways to deal with a counter-arguments that, if done well, will strengthen not weaken your argument. 1. Dismiss A dismissal is where you assert that counter-argument is simply false or irrelevant. Avoid or use sparingly! Some say such exams are invalid measures of what people learn, but that is not true. 2. Concessions A concession is where you accept a counter- argument. It is true that many students might find it stressful to take a comprehensive exam. 3. Rebuttal A rebuttal is an argument against a counter-claim. Strongest approach! Some argue that comprehensive exams do more harm than good. However, several studies have shown that universities and colleges that starting giving such exams got a reversal in the decline scores on standardized achievement test.
Response: Dismiss * Avoid or use dismissals sparingly. It reminds one of our childhood is not is so exchanges. * An argument is about providing evidence or reasons so rebuttals are more persuasive and better formed than dismissals. * Special audience considerations: * Dismissals can offend audiences, especially hostile audiences, and make you appear unfair or inconsiderate. In general dismissals are bad form and not effective. Dismissing counter-claims can make you appear unknowledgeable or unskilled in argumentation. Response: Concession * In concession, you are acknowledging that there is some merit to the audiences worries or beliefs. There are times where something is not really controversial so you have to concede it. For example, Testing students can be an effective motivator for learning. * Do not concede points that are so important that agreeing to the truth of it will weaken your argument. Conceding a point can be an effective part of your presentation if the claim you accept is not central to your own position and your own rebuttal reason would be weak. Special audience considerations: * Conceding points on which you agree with the audience makes you appear fair and creates common ground, especially to ambivalent and uninformed audiences. Response: Rebut * Rebuttal is when you argue against the opposing view by presenting reasons or evidence to show that it is weak, illogical, irrelevant, or factually wrong. * Select rebuttals that you think will be acceptable to your audience. Just like reasons, rebuttals are not universally strong. Their power depends on the audience s beliefs and knowledge. Special audience considerations: * The rebuttal, if done well, can reinforce a friendly or ambivalent audience s belief in the claim you are arguing for. * A strong rebuttal can undercut other side arguments especially for ambivalent, uninformed and undecided members.
Global organization 1. Try to begin your argument by building a connection with audience and getting them to see the importance of the topic. Often it is best to start with this to engage your audience and break through any resistant attitudes they may have adopted before even reading your argument. 2. Make sure to provide enough information or context so your audience will understand your position. This is where you need to consider your audiences knowledge or beliefs. But you definitely don t want to include background or details that are unnecessary. It is insulting and boring. 3. State your claim clearly and present strong reasons that will be acceptable to your target audience. 4. Acknowledge the most obvious objection and rebut it if possible. Be respectful to those you disagree with. 5. Put your counter where it will be most effective for your audience. If you have a hostile audience it may be best to start from their perspective and work them around to your perspective. For other audiences, mention it when it would naturally be thought about. 6. End strong.